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Hispanism (sometimes referred to asHispanic studies orSpanish studies) is the study of theliterature andculture of theSpanish-speaking world, principally that ofSpain andHispanic America. It may also entail studying Spanish language and cultural history in theUnited States and in other presently or formerly Spanish-speaking countries inAfrica,Asia, and thePacific, such asEquatorial Guinea and the formerSpanish East Indies.
Ahispanist is a scholar specializing in Hispanicism.[1] It was used in an article byMiguel de Unamuno in 1908[2] referring to 'el hispanista italiano Farinelli', and was discussed at length for the U.S. by HispanistRichard L. Kagan ofJohns Hopkins University.[3] The work carried out by Hispanists includes translations of literature and they may specialize in certain genres, authors or historical periods of theIberian Peninsula andHispanic America, etc.
During the 16th century, Spain was a motor of innovation in Europe, given its links to new lands, subjects, literary sorts and personages, dances, and fashions. This hegemonic status, also advanced by commercial and economic interests, generated interest in learning the Spanish language, as Spain was the dominant political power and was the first to develop an overseas empire in post-Renaissance Europe. In order to respond to that interest, some Spanish writers developed a new focus on the Spanish language as subject matter. In 1492Antonio de Nebrija published hisGramática castellana, the first published grammar of a modern European language.Juan de Valdés composed hisDiálogo de la lengua (1533) for his Italian friends, who were eager to learn Castilian. And the lawyerCristóbal de Villalón wrote in hisGramática castellana (Antwerp, 1558) that Castilian was spoken by Flemish, Italian, English, and French persons.
For many years, especially between 1550 and 1670, European presses published a large number of Spanish grammars and dictionaries that linked Spanish to one or more other languages. Two of the oldest grammars were published anonymously inLouvain:Útil y breve institución para aprender los Principios y fundamentos de la lengua Hespañola (1555) andGramática de la lengua vulgar de España (1559).
Among the more outstanding foreign authors of Spanish grammars were the ItaliansGiovanni Mario Alessandri (1560) andGiovanni Miranda (1566);[4] the EnglishRichard Percivale (1591),[5]John Minsheu[5] (1599) andLewis Owen[6] (1605); the FrenchJean Saulnier (1608) andJean Doujat (1644); the GermanHeinrich Doergangk (1614);[7] and the DutchCarolus Mulerius (1630).[8]
Dictionaries were composed by the ItalianGirolamo Vittori (1602), the EnglishmanJohn Torius (1590) and the FrenchmenJacques Ledel (1565),[1]Jean Palet (1604) and[2]François Huillery (1661). The lexicographical contribution of the GermanHeinrich Hornkens (1599) and of the Franco-Spanish authorPere Lacavallería (1642) were also important to French Hispanism.
Others combined grammars and dictionaries. The works of the EnglishmanRichard Percivale (1591), FrenchmanCésar Oudin (1597, 1607), ItaliansLorenzo Franciosini (1620, 1624) andArnaldo de la Porte[9] (1659, 1669) and AustrianNicholas Mez von Braidenbach[10] (1666, 1670) were especially relevant. Franciosini and Oudin also translatedDon Quixote. This list is far from complete and the grammars and dictionaries in general had a great number of versions, adaptations, reprintings and even translations (Oudin'sGrammaire et observations de langue espagnolle, for example, was translated into Latin and English). This is why it is not possible to exaggerate the great impact that the Spanish language had in the Europe of the 16th and 17th centuries.
In the 19th century, coinciding with the loss of the Spanish colonial empire and the birth of new Latin American republics, Europe and the United States showed a renewed interest in Hispanic history, literature and culture of the declining great power and its now independent former colonies. Inside Spain, after the country lost definitely its empire inthe Spanish defeat in 1898, calls for cultural regeneration and a new conception of identity based in language and humanities began to emerge.[11]
Duringthe Romantic period, the image of a Moorish and exotic medieval Spain, a picturesque country with a mixed cultural heritage, captured the imagination of many writers. This led many to become interested in Spanish literature, legends, and traditions. Travel books written at that time maintained and intensified that interest, and led to a more serious and scientific approach to the study of Spanish and Hispanic American culture. This field did not have a word coined to name it until the early 20th century, when it ended up being called Hispanism.
Hispanism has traditionally been defined[by whom?] as the study of the Spanish and Spanish-American cultures, and particularly of their language by foreigners or people generally not educated in Spain. TheInstituto Cervantes has promoted the study of Spanish and Hispanic culture around the world, similar to the way in which institutions such as theBritish Council, theAlliance Française or theGoethe Institute have done for their own countries.
Hispanism as an organizing rubric has been criticized by scholars in Spain and in Latin America. The term "attempts to appropriate Latin-American topics and subordinate them to a Spanish centre,” observes Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera. “The nomenclatures have a radial implication which both initiates and sanctions the flawed concept that all cultural materials under this heading emanate from a singular source: the Peninsula.”[12] The rise of “Hispanism” as a term, notes Joan Ramon Resina, “in Spain as in Latin America, was accomplished for the purpose of political administration and obedience to Castilian rule through methods of domination that eventually led to independence and the birth (rather than fragmentation) of a constellation of republics.”[13] He goes on to say that “it is incumbent on us to face up to the possibility that Hispanism no longer has a future in the university.”[14] While Nicolas Shumway believes Hispanism “is an outmoded idea based on an essentialist, ideologically driven, and Spain-centric, notions,”[15] Carlos Alonso maintains the field of Hispanism “must be rethought and exploded.”[16]
In thePhilippines, the Hispanists (orhispanista inTagalog) are a term that has become associated withwhite washing,colonial mentality andcultural cringe for the past years. In particular, it has surfaced in social media as a bias onPhilippine history that regards the colonizers andconquistadors as heroes and "civilizers", and the Philippine national heroes likeAndres Bonifacio andLapulapu as the "villains".
Issues and reactions had stirred on the so-calledhispanista movement of Spanish restoration for their radicalism. Claims and historical narratives in the social media have included proposing to “replace” the currentFilipino as the country's official language, alluding to the country's status as a former Spanish Empire colony.[17] The anti-Tagalog bias and the demand to credit cultural achievements in the Filipino culture to the Spanish colonizers have resulted in backlash and a negative reputation for online supporters of these ideas in the Philippines.[17]
In the late 19th century UruguayanJosé Enrique Rodó and CubanJosé Martí were writers stressing the value of Spanish language and cultural heritage as part of the construction of an identity for the new Hispanic American independent nations.[18]
The first Spanish book translated into English was theCelestina, as an adaptation in verse published in London between 1525 and 1530 byJohn Rastell. It includes only the first four acts and is based on the Italian version of Alfonso de Ordóñez; it is often referred to as anInterlude, and its original title isA New Comedy in English in Manner of an Interlude Right Elegant and Full of Craft of Rhetoric: Wherein is Shewed and Described as well the Beauty and Good Properties of Women, as Their Vices and Evil Conditions with a Moral Conclusion and Exhortation to Virtue.. The Scottish poetWilliam Drummond (1585–1649) translatedGarcilaso de la Vega andJuan Boscán. The English knew the masterpieces of Castilian literature, from early translations ofAmadís de Gaula byGarci Rodriguez de Montalvo and theCárcel de amor byDiego de San Pedro. SirPhilip Sidney had readLos siete libros de la Diana by the Hispano-PortugueseJorge de Montemayor, whose poetry influenced him greatly. John Bourchier translatedLibro de Marco Aurelio byAntonio de Guevara.David Rowland translatedLazarillo de Tormes in 1586, which may have inspired the first Englishpicaresque novel,The Unfortunate Traveller (1594), byThomas Nashe. By the end of the 16th century, theCelestina had been translated fully (in London, J. Wolf, 1591;Adam Islip, 1596;William Apsley, 1598; and others). Some of the translators of that time traveled or lived for some time in Spain, such as Lord Berners,Bartholomew Yong,Thomas Shelton,Leonard Digges andJames Mabbe.William Cecil (Lord Burghley; 1520–1598) owned the largest Spanish library in the United Kingdom.
Elizabethan theater also felt the powerful influence of theSpanish Golden Age.John Fletcher, a frequent collaborator ofShakespeare, borrowed fromMiguel de Cervantes'sDon Quixote for hisCardenio, possibly written in collaboration with Shakespeare, who is thought to have readJuan Luis Vives. Fletcher's frequent collaboratorFrancis Beaumont also imitatedDon Quixote in the more well-knownThe Knight of the Burning Pestle. Fletcher also borrowed from other works by Cervantes, includingLos trabajos de Persiles y Segismunda for hisThe Custom of the Country andLa ilustre fregona for his beautiful young saleswoman. Cervantes also inspiredThomas Middleton andWilliam Rowley, with hisLa gitanilla (one of theNovelas ejemplares) influencing theirThe Spanish Gipsy (1623).
The first translation ofDon Quixote into a foreign language was the English version byThomas Shelton (first part, 1612; second, 1620). AndDon Quixote was imitated in the satirical poemHudibras (1663–78), composed bySamuel Butler. In addition, the works of some great Golden Age poets were translated into English byRichard Fanshawe, who died in Madrid. As early as 1738, a luxurious London edition ofDon Quixote in Spanish was published, prepared by theSephardic CervantistPedro Pineda, with an introduction byGregorio Mayans and ornate engravings. Also in the 18th century two new translations ofDon Quixote were published, one by the painterCharles Jervas (1742) and one byTobias Smollett, a writer ofpicaresque novels (1755). Smollet appears as an avid reader of Spanish narrative, and that influence is always present in his works. Meanwhile, the best work of the 17th-century writerCharlotte Lennox isThe Female Quixote (1752), which was inspired by Cervantes. Cervantes also was the inspiration forThe Spiritual Quixote, byRichard Graves. Thwe first critical and annotated edition ofDon Quixote was that of the English clergymanJohn Bowle (1781). The novelistsHenry Fielding andLawrence Sterne also were familiar with the works of Cervantes.
Among the British travellers in Spain in the 18th century who left written testimony of their travels are (chronologically)John Durant Breval,Thomas James,Wyndham Beawes,James Harris,Richard Twiss,Francis Carter,William Dalrymple,Philip Thicknesse,Henry Swinburne,John Talbot Dillon,Alexander Jardine,Richard Croker,Richard Cumberland,Joseph Townsend,Arthur Young,William Beckford, John Macdonald (Memoirs of an Eighteenth-Century Footman),Robert Southey andNeville Wyndham.
Other English travel writers who straddled the 18th and 19th centuries includeJohn Hookham Frere,Henry Richard Vassall-Fox, better known as Lord Holland (1773–1840), a great friend ofGaspar Melchor de Jovellanos andManuel José Quintana, and benefactor ofJosé María Blanco White. Lord Holland visited Spain on numerous occasions and wrote his impressions about those trips. He also collected books and manuscripts and wrote a biography ofLope de Vega. His home was open to all Spaniards, but especially to the liberal émigrés who arrived in the London district ofSomers Town in the 19th century, fleeing the absolutist repression ofKing Ferdinand VII and the religious and ideological dogmatism of the country. Many of them subsisted by translating or teaching their language to English people, most of whom were interested in conducting business with Spanish America, although others wished to learn about Spanish medieval literature, much in vogue among the Romantics. One of the émigrés,Antonio Alcalá Galiano, taught Spanish literature as a professor at the University of London in 1828 and published his notes. The publisherRudolph Ackerman established a great business publishingCatecismos (text books) on different matters in Spanish, many of them written by Spanish émigrés, for the new Spanish-American republics.Matthew G. Lewis set some of his works in Spain. And the protagonist ofJane Austen'sAbbey of Northanger is deranged by her excessive reading ofGothic novels, much as was Don Quixote with his books ofchivalry.
SirWalter Scott was an enthusiastic reader of Cervantes and tried his hand at translation. He dedicated his narrative poemThe Vision of Roderick (1811) to Spain and its history.Thomas Rodd translated someSpanish folk ballads.Lord Byron also was greatly interested in Spain and was a reader ofDon Quixote. He translated the balladAy de mi Alhama in part of hisChilde Harold andDon Juan.Richard Trench translatedPedro Calderón de la Barca and was friends with some of the emigrated Spaniards, some of whom wrote in both English and Spanish, such asJosé María Blanco White andTelesforo de Trueba y Cossío, and many of whom (including Juan Calderón, who held a chair of Spanish atKing's College), spread knowledge of the Spanish language and its literature.John Hookham Frere was a friend of theDuke of Rivas when the latter was in Malta, and Hookham translated some medieval and classical poetry into English. The brothersJeremiah Holmes Wiffen andBenjamin B. Wiffen were both scholars of Spanish culture. The"Lake Poet"Robert Southey, translatedAmadís de Gaula andPalmerín de Inglaterra into English, among others works. English novelists were strongly influenced by Cervantes. Especially so wasCharles Dickens, who created a quixotic pair in Mr. Pickwick andSam Weller ofPosthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club.John Ormsby translated theCantar de Mio Cid andDon Quixote.Percy Bysshe Shelley left traces of his devotion toCalderón de la Barca in his work. The polyglotJohn Bowring traveled to Spain in 1819 and published the observations of his trip. Other accounts of travel in Spain include those ofRichard Ford, whoseHandbook for Travellers in Spain (1845) was republished in many editions, andGeorge Borrow, author of the travelogueThe Bible in Spain, which was translated into Castilian byManuel Azaña, the poet and translatorEdward Fitzgerald, and the literary historianJames Fitzmaurice-Kelly, who was mentor to a whole British generation of Spanish scholars such asEdgar Allison Peers andAlexander A. Parker. Other outstanding Hispanists include the following:
as well asGeoffrey Ribbans;William James Entwistle;Peter Edward Russell;Nigel Glendinning;Brian Dutton;Gerald Brenan;John H. Elliott;Raymond Carr;Henry Kamen;John H. R. Polt;Hugh Thomas;Colin Smith;Edward C. Riley;Keith Whinnom;Paul Preston;Alan Deyermond;Ian Michael; andIan Gibson.
TheAssociation of Hispanists of Great Britain and Ireland (AHGBI) was founded in 1955 by a group of university professors atSt. Andrews, and since then it has held congresses annually. The AHGBI played a decisive role in the creation of theAsociación Internacional de Hispanistas[19] (AIH), whose first congress was held atOxford in 1962.
Aside from the imitation of thepicaresque novel byHans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, Hispanism bloomed in Germany around the enthusiasm that German Romantics had forMiguel de Cervantes,Calderón de la Barca, andGracián.Friedrich Diez (1794–1876) can be considered the first German philologist to give prominence to Spanish, in hisGrammatik der romanischen Sprachen (1836–1843) and hisEtymologisches Wörterbuch der romanischen Sprachen (1854). His first Spanish-related work,Altspanische Romanzen, was published in 1819.
Important to the promotion of Hispanism in Germany was a group of Romantic writers that includedLudwig Tieck, an orientalist and poet who translatedDon Quixote into German (1799–1801);Friedrich Bouterwek, author of the unorthodoxGeschichte der Poesie und Beredsamkeit seit dem Ende des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts and translator of the Cervantes short farceEl juez de los divorcios [es]; andAugust Wilhelm Schlegel (1767–1845), who translated works ofCalderón de la Barca (Spanisches Theater, 1803–1809) and Spanish classical poetry into German. The philologist and folkloristJakob Grimm publishedSilva de romances viejos (Vienna, 1816) with a prologue in Spanish.Juan Nicolás Böhl de Faber, German consul in Spain, was a devoted student ofCalderón de la Barca, of Spanish classical theater generally, and of traditional popular literature. The philologistWilhelm von Humboldt traveled through Spain taking notes and was interested especially in the Basque language, and the philosopherArthur Schopenhauer was an avid reader and translator ofGracián. CountAdolf Friedrich von Schack (1815–1894) made a trip to Spain in 1852 to study the remnants of the Moorish civilization and became a devoted scholar of things Spanish.
Hispanists of German, Austrian, and Swiss origins includeFranz Grillparzer,Wendelin Förster,Karl Vollmöller,Adolf Tobler,Heinrich Morf,Gustav Gröber,Gottfried Baist, andWilhelm Meyer-Lübke. Among them are two emigrants to Chile,Rodolfo Lenz(1863–1938), whose works include hisDiccionario etimolójico de las voces chilenas derivadas de lenguas indíjenas americanas (1904) andChilenische Studien (1891), as well as other works on grammar and the Spanish of the Americas; andFriedrich Hanssen (1857–1919), author ofSpanische Grammatik auf historischer Grundlage (1910; revised ed. in Spanish,Gramática histórica de la lengua castellana, 1913), as well as other works onOld Spanish philology,Aragonese dialectology, and the Spanish of the Americas. TheHandbuch der romanischen Philologie (1896) byWilhelm Meyer-Lübke was a classic in Spain, as were hisGrammatik der romanischen Sprachen (1890–1902),Einführung in das Studium der romanischen Sprachwissenschaft (1901) (translated into Spanish), andRomanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (1935).Johannes Fastenrath, through his translations and other works, spread the Spanish culture among his contemporaries; inaddition, he created theprize that bears his name in theSpanish Royal Academy, to reward the best works in Spanish poetry, fiction, and essays. The Austrian Romance scholarFerdinand Wolf, a friend ofAgustín Durán, was particularly interested in theromancero, in the lyric poetry of the medieval Spanishcancioneros, and in other medieval folk poetry; he also studied Spanish authors who had resided in Vienna, such asCristóbal de Castillejo. The Swiss scholarHeinrich Morf edited the medievalPoema de José (Leipzig, 1883). The works ofKarl Vossler andLudwig Pfandl on linguistic idealism and literary stylistics were widely read in Spain.Calderón studies in Germany were advanced by the editions ofMax Krenkel. Other important authors wereEmil Gessner, who wroteDas Altleonesische (Old Leonese) (Berlin 1867);Gottfried Baist, who produced an edition ofDon Juan Manuel'sLibro de la caza (1880), as well as the outline of a historical grammar of Spanish,Die spanische Sprache, in the encyclopedia of Romance philology published byGustav Gröber in 1888;Hugo Schuchardt, known for his study of Spanishflamenco music,Die cantes flamencos; andArmin Gassner, who wroteDas altspanische Verbum (the Old Spanish verb) (1897), as well as a work on Spanish syntax (1890) and several articles on Spanish pronouns between 1893 and 1895. AndMoritz Goldschmidt [de] wroteZur Kritik der altgermanischen Elemente im Spanischen (Bonn 1887), the first work on the influences of the Germanic languages on Spanish.
Authors who made more specialized contributions to Hispanic philology include the following:
Fritz Krüger created the famousHamburg School (not to be confused with thepop music genre of the 1980s, of the same name), which applied the principles of theWörter und Sachen movement, founded earlier by Swiss and German philologists such asHugo Schuchardt, Ruduolf Meringer, andWilhelm Meyer-Lübke, aptly combining dialectology and ethnography. Between 1926 and 1944 Krüger directed the journalVolkstum und Kultur der Romane and its supplements (1930–1945). It totaled 37 volumes, in which many of his students published their works. Krüger wrote mainly on Hispanic dialectology, especially on that of western Spain (Extremadura and Leon) and the Pyrenees, and he traveled on foot to gather the materials for his monumental workDie Hochpyrenäen, in which he meticulously described the landscape, flora, fauna, material culture, popular traditions and dialects of the Central Pyrenees. The versatile Romance scholarGerhard Rohlfs investigated the languages and the dialects of both sides of the Pyrenees and their elements in common, as well as pre-Roman substrate languages of the Iberian Peninsula andGuancheloanwords.
The works ofKarl Vossler, founder of the linguistic school ofidealism, include interpretations of Spanish literature and reflections on the Spanish culture. Vossler, along withHelmut Hatzfeld andLeo Spitzer, began a new school of stylistics based on aesthetics, which focused on the means of expression of various authors.
The early twentieth century marked the founding of two German institutions dedicated to Hispanic Studies (including Catalan, Galician and the Portuguese), in Hamburg and Berlin respectively. The University of Hamburg's Iberoamerikanisches Forschungsinstitut (Ibero-American Research Institute) was, from its founding in 1919 until the 1960s, almost the only German university institution dedicated to Spanish and other languages of the Iberian Peninsula. The Institute published the journalVolkstum und Kultur der Romanen (1926–1944), devoted specifically to works on dialectology and popular culture, following, in general, patterns of theWörter und Sachen school. Meanwhile, Berlin'sIbero-Amerikanisches Institut was founded in 1930. Today, the Berlin institute houses Europe's largest library dedicated to studies of Spain, Portugal, and Latin America, and to the languages of these countries (including Catalan, Galician, Portuguese, Basque, and the indigenous languages of the Americas). The Ibero-Amerikanisches Institut in Berlin is engaged in research in the fields of literature, linguistics, ethnology, history, and art history.
Under theNazi regime (1933–1945), German philology went through a difficult time. Some Romanists, through their work, praised and propagated the Nazi ideology. Meanwhile, others lost their professorships or underwent anti-Jewish persecution (such asYakov Malkiel andLeo Spitzer, both of whom emigrated), by falling into disfavor with the regime or actively opposing it (for exampleHelmut Hatzfeld, who fled from Germany, and Werner Krauss (not to be confused with theactor of the same name), who lost his academic position in 1935).
Laboriously reconstructed after World War II, the Hispanic philology of the German-speaking countries contributed the works ofCarolina Michaëlis de Vasconcellos andErnst Robert Curtius. Also:
TheDeutscher Hispanistenverband (German Association of Hispanists) was established in 1977 and since then has held a congress biennially. Currently in Germany, Spanish often surpasses French in number of students. About forty university departments of Romance philology exist in Germany, and there are more than ten thousand students of Spanish.
Today in Germany there are publishers specialized in Hispanic Studies, such asEdition Reichenberger, inKassel, which is devoted to the Golden Age, and Klaus Dieter Vervuert'sIberoamericana Vervuert Verlag, which has branches in Frankfurt and Madrid and facilitates collaboration among Hispanists.
In Austria,Franz Grillparzer was the first scholar of Spanish and a reader of the theater of the Golden Age. Anton Rothbauer also distinguished himself, as a translator of modern lyric poetry and scholar of theBlack Legend.Rudolf Palgen and Alfred Wolfgang Wurzbach (for example withhis study ofLope de Vega) also contributed to Hispanism in Austria.
Hispanism in France dates back to the powerful influence ofSpanish Golden Age literature on authors such asPierre Corneille andPaul Scarron. Spanish influence was also brought to France by Spanish Protestants who fled theInquisition, many of whom took up teaching of the Spanish language. These includedJuan de Luna, author of a sequel toLazarillo de Tormes. N. Charpentier'sParfaicte méthode pour entendre, écrire et parler la langue espagnole (Paris: Lucas Breyel, 1597) was supplemented by the grammar ofCésar Oudin (also from 1597) that served as a model to those that were later written in French.Michel de Montaigne read the chroniclers of theSpanish Conquest and had as one of his modelsAntonio de Guevara.Molière,Alain-René Lesage, andJean-Pierre Claris de Florian borrowed plots and characters from Spanish literature.
French travelers to Spain in the 19th century who left written and artistic testimony include painters such asEugène Delacroix andHenri Regnault; well-known authors such asAlexandre Dumas,Théophile Gautier,George Sand,Stendhal,Hippolyte Taine andProsper Mérimée; and other writers, includingJean-François de Bourgoing,Jean Charles Davillier,Louis Viardot,Isidore Justin Séverin,Charles Didier,Alexandre de Laborde,Antoine de Latour,Joseph Bonaventure Laurens,Édouard Magnien,Pierre Louis de Crusy andAntoine Frédéric Ozanam.
Victor Hugo was in Spain accompanying his father in 1811 and 1813. He was proud to call himself a "grandee of Spain", and he knew the language well. In his works there are numerous allusions toEl Cid and the works ofMiguel de Cervantes.
Prosper Mérimée, even before his repeated trips to Spain, had shaped his intuitive vision of the country in hisThéatre de Clara Gazul (1825) and inLa Famille de Carvajal (1828). Mérimée made many trips between 1830 and 1846, making numerous friends, among them theDuke of Rivas andAntonio Alcalá Galiano. He wroteLettres addressées d'Espagne au directeur de la Revue de Paris, which arecostumbrista sketches that feature the description of a bullfight. Mérimée's short novelsLes âmes du purgatoire [de;fr;pl] (1834) andCarmen (1845) are classic works on Spain.
Honoré de Balzac was a friend ofFrancisco Martínez de la Rosa and dedicated his novelEl Verdugo (1829) to him. (And Martínez de la Rosa's playAbén Humeya was produced in Paris in 1831.)
The Spanishromancero is represented in the FrenchBibliothèque universelle des romans, which was published in 1774.Auguste Creuzé de Lesser publishedfolk ballads aboutEl Cid in 1814, comparing them (asJohann Gottfried Herder had done before him) with the Greek epic tradition, and these were reprinted in 1823 and 1836, providing much raw material to the French Romantic movement. The journalist and publisherAbel Hugo, brother ofVictor Hugo, emphasized the literary value of theromancero, translating and publishing a collection ofromances and a history of King Rodrigo in 1821, andRomances historiques traduits de l'espagnol in 1822. He also composed a stage review,Les français en Espagne (1823), inspired by the time he spent with his brother at the Seminario de Nobles in Madrid during the reign ofJoseph Bonaparte.
Madame de Stäel contributed to the knowledge of Spanish Literature in France (as she did also for German literature), which helped introduce Romanticism to the country. To this end she translated volume IV ofFriedrich Bouterwek'sGeschichte der Poesie und Beredsamkeit seit dem Ende des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts in 1812 and gave it the title ofHistoire de la littérature espagnole.
Spanish literature was also promoted to readers of French by the Swiss authorSimonde de Sismondi with his studyDe la littérature du midi de l'Europe (1813).
Also important for French access to Spanish poetry was the two-volumeEspagne poétique (1826–27), an anthology of post-15th-century Castilian poetry translated byJuan María Maury. In Paris, the publishing house Baudry published many works by Spanish Romantics and even maintained a collection of "best" Spanish authors, edited byEugenio de Ochoa.
Images of Spain were offered by the travel books ofMadame d'Aulnoy andSaint-Simon, as well as the poetThéophile Gautier, who travelled in Spain in 1840 and publishedVoyage en Espagne (1845) andEspagne (1845). These works are so full of color and the sense of the picturesque that they even served as inspirations to Spanish writers themselves (poets such asJosé Zorrilla and narrators such as those of theGeneration of '98), as well as toAlexandre Dumas, who attended the production of Zorrilla'sDon Juan Tenorio in Madrid. Dumas wrote his somewhat negative views of his experience in hisImpressions de voyage (1847–1848). In his playDon Juan de Marana, Dumas revived the legend ofDon Juan, changing the ending after having seen Zorrilla's version in the edition of 1864.
François-René de Chateaubriand traveled through Iberia in 1807 on his return trip from Jerusalem, and later took part in theFrench intervention in Spain in 1823, which he describes in hisMémoires d'Outre-tombe (1849–1850). It may have been at that time that he began to writeLes aventures du dernier Abencerraje (1826), which exalted Hispano-Arabic chivalry. Another work that was widely read was theLettres d'un espagnol (1826), byLouis Viardot, who visited Spain in 1823.
Stendhal included a chapter "De l'Espagne" in his essayDe l'amour (1822). Later (1834) he visited the country.
George Sand spent the winter of 1837–1838 withChopin inMajorca, installed in theValldemossa Charterhouse. Their impressions are captured in Sand'sUn hiver au midi de l'Europe (1842) and in Chopin'sMemoirs.
Spanish classical painting exerted a strong influence onManet, and more recently, painters such asPicasso andDalí have influenced modern painting generally.
Spanish music has influenced composers such asGeorges Bizet,Emmanuel Chabrier,Édouard Lalo,Maurice Ravel, andClaude Debussy.
At present the most important centers for Hispanism in France are at the Universities ofBordeaux andToulouse, and in Paris, with the Institut des Études Hispaniques, founded in 1912. Journals includeBulletin Hispanique.
Prominent Hispanists in Belgium includePierre Groult andLucien-Paul Thomas. Groult studiedCastilian mysticism in relation to its Flemish counterpart.A Comprehensive Spanish Grammar (1995)—an English translation of the original DutchSpaanse Spraakkunst (1979)—was written by Jacques de Bruyne, a professor atGhent University.
Hispanism in the United States has a long tradition and is highly developed. To a certain extent this is a result of the United States's own history, which is tied closely to the Spanish empire and its former colonies, especiallyMexico,Puerto Rico, thePhilippines, andCuba. Historically, many Americans have romanticized the Spanish legacy and given a privileged position to the Castilian language and culture, while simultaneously downplaying or rejecting the Latin American and Caribbean dialects and cultures of the Spanish-speaking areas of U.S. influence. There are now more than thirty-five million Spanish-speakers in the United States, making Spanish the second most spoken language in the country and Latinos the largest national minority. Spanish is used actively in some of the most populous states, includingCalifornia,Florida,New Mexico, andTexas, and in large cities such asNew York,Los Angeles,Miami,San Antonio andSan Francisco. TheAmerican Association of Teachers of Spanish was founded in 1917 and holds a biennial congress outside the United States;Hispania is the association's official publication. (Since 1944, it is theAmerican Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese.) TheNorth American Academy of the Spanish Language brings together Spanish speakers in North America.
The first academic professorships of Spanish at United States universities were established atHarvard (1819),Virginia (1825), andYale (1826). The U.S. consul inValencia,Obadiah Rich, imported numerous books and valuable manuscripts that became the Obadiah Rich Collection at theNew York Public Library, and numerous magazines, especially theNorth American Review, published translations. Many travelers published their impressions on Spain, such asAlexander Slidell Mackenzie (A Year in Spain [1836] andSpain Revisited [1836]). These were read byWashington Irving,Edgar Allan Poe, and other travelers like the Sephardic journalistMordecai M. Noah and the diplomatCaleb Cushing and his wife. Poe studied Spanish at the University of Virginia and some of his stories have Spanish settings. He also wrote scholarly articles onSpanish literature.
The beginnings of Hispanism itself are found in the works ofWashington Irving, who metLeandro Fernández de Moratín inBordeaux in 1825 and was in Spain in 1826 (when he frequented the social gatherings of another American,Sarah Maria Theresa McKean (1780–1841), the marquise widow ofCasa Irujo), as well as in 1829. He went on to become ambassador between 1842 and 1846. Irving studied in Spanish libraries and metMartín Fernández de Navarrete inMadrid, using one of the latter's works as a source for hisA History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), and made friends and corresponded withCecilia Böhl de Faber, from where a mutual influence was born. His Romantic interest in Arab topics shaped hisA Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada (1829) andAlhambra (1832). McKean's social gatherings were also attended by the children of the Bostonian of Irish origin John Montgomery, who was the consul of the United States inAlicante, and particularly by the Spanish-born writerGeorge Washington Montgomery.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's translations of Spanish classics also form part of the history of North American Hispanism; he went throughMadrid in 1829 expressing his impressions in his letters, a diary and inOutre-Mer (1833–1834). A good connoisseur of the classics, Longfellow translatedJorge Manrique'scouplets. In order to fulfill his duties as a Spanish professor, he composed hisSpanish Novels (1830), which are story adaptations of Irving and published several essays on Spanish literature and a drama, includingThe Spanish Student (1842), where he imitates those of theSpanish Golden Age. In his anthologyThe Poets and Poetry of Europe (1845) he includes the works of many Spanish poets.William Cullen Bryant translatedMorisco romances and composed the poems "The Spanish Revolution" (1808) and "Cervantes" (1878). He was linked in New York to Spaniards and, as director of theEvening Post, included many articles on Iberian subjects in the magazine. He was in Spain in 1847, and narrated his impressions inLetters of a traveller (1850–1857). In Madrid he metCarolina Coronado, translating into English her poem "The Lost Bird" and novelJarilla, both of which were published in theEvening Post. But the most important group of Spanish scholars was one from Boston. The work ofGeorge Ticknor, a professor of Spanish at Harvard who wroteHistory of Spanish Literature, andWilliam H. Prescott, who wrote historical works on the conquest of America, are without doubt contributions of the first order. Ticknor was a friend ofPascual de Gayangos y Arce, whom he met inLondon, and visitedSpain in 1818, describing his impressions inLife, letters and journals (1876). In spite of significant difficulties with his vision, Prescott composed histories of the conquest ofMexico andPeru, as well as ahistory of the reign of the Catholic Monarchs.
In the United States there are important societies that are dedicated to the study, conservation and spread of Spanish culture, of which theHispanic Society of America is the best known. There are also libraries specialized in Hispanic matter, including ones at Tulane University, New Orleans. Important journals includeHispanic Review,Revista de las Españas [es],Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica,Hispania,Dieciocho,Revista Hispánica Moderna andCervantes.
The history of Hispanism inRussia—before, during, and after theSoviet period—is long and deep, and it even survived the rupture of relations between Russia and Spain caused by theSpanish Civil War. This history started in the 18th century, and in the 19th century the influence ofMiguel de Cervantes onrealist novelists (such asDostoyevsky,Turgenev, andTolstoy) was profound.
Romantic travellers, such asSergei Sobolevski, accumulated great libraries of books in Spanish and helped Spanish writers who visited Russia, such asJuan Valera. The Russian realist dramatistAlexander Ostrovsky translated the theater ofCalderón and wrote texts on Spanish Golden Age theater.Yevgeni Salias de Tournemir visited Spain and publishedApuntes de viaje por España (1874), shortly beforeEmilio Castelar published hisLa Rusia contemporánea (1881).
The Russian Association of Hispanists, founded in 1994, is currently supported by theRussian Academy of Sciences. The field of Spanish-American studies has undergone a great increase recently. A survey in 2003 revealed that there are at least four thousand students of Spanish in Russian universities.
Twentieth-century Spanish scholars includeSergei Goncharenko (mentor of a whole generation of Spanish scholars), Victor Andreyev, Vladimir Vasiliev, Natalia Miod, Svetlana Piskunova, and Vsevolod Bagno (El Quijote vivido por los rusos). Recently, a Russian Hernandian Circle was founded, devoted to studying the work ofMiguel Hernández, who visited the USSR in September1937.
Records of visits to Spain by Poles begin in the Middle Ages, with pilgrimages toSantiago de Compostela. According to one estimate, more than 100 Poles made the pilgrimage during that era.[20]
In the 16th century, the humanistJan Dantyszek (1485–1548), ambassador of KingSigismund I the Old toCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor, traveled to the Iberian Peninsula three times and remained there for nearly ten years, becoming friends with outstanding figures such asHernán Cortés and leaving letters of his travels. The bishopPiotr Dunin-Wolski took 300 Spanish books to Poland, and these were added to theJagiellonian Library of Kraków under the name ofBibliotheca Volsciana. Several professors from Spain worked in the Academy of Kraków (today known as theJagiellonian University), including the Sevillian Garsías Cuadras and the Aragonese juristPedro Ruiz de Moros (1506–1571), known in Poland as Roizjusz, who mainly wrote in Latin and was adviser to the king. TheSociety of Jesus was active in Poland, promoting not only Spanish ideas of theology, but also Spanish theater, which they considered a teaching tool.[21] In the 16th century, the travelersStanisław Łaski,Andrzej Tęczyński,Jan Tarnowski,Stanisław Radziwiłł, and Szymon Babiogórski visited Spain, among others. An anonymous traveler who arrived in Barcelona in August 1595 left an account of his impressions in a manuscript calledDiariusz z peregrynacji włoskiej, hiszpańskiej, portugalskiej (Diary of the Italian, Spanish and Portuguese Pilgrimages).[22]
In the 17th century, the Polish noblemanJakub Sobieski made thepilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela and wrote an account of his journey. In the years 1674–1675, CanonAndrzej Chryzostom Załuski, Jerzy Radziwiłł, and Stanisław Radziwiłł visited Spain, and all left written testimony of their travels.
Modern Polish Hispanic Studies begin with the Romantic poetAdam Mickiewicz. He was followed in the 19th century byJoachim Lelewel, Wojciech Dzieduszycki,Leonard Rettel, and Julian Adolf Swiecicki.Karol Dembowski wrote, in French, abook on his travels in Spain and Portugal duringFirst Carlist War.
Felix Rozanski, Edward Porebowicz andZygmunt Czerny were enthusiastic translators who taught in Poland at that time. Maria Strzałkowa wrote the firstoutline of history of Spanish literature in Polish. Other important translators include Kazimierz Zawanowski, Zofia Szleyen, Kalina Wojciechowska, and Zofia Chądzyńska.
The poet and HispanistFlorian Śmieja taught Spanish and Spanish American literature in London, Ontario. In 1971 the first professorship of Hispanic Studies not subordinate to a department of Romance literature was created at theUniversity of Warsaw, and in the following year a degree program in Hispanic Studies was instituted there. Today it is called the Institute of Iberian and Latin American Studies. Those who have taught in it include Urszula Aszyk-Bangs, M.-Pierrette Malcuzynski (1948–2004), Robert Mansberger Amorós, Víctor Manuel Ferreras, and Carlos Marrodán Casas. In Kraków the first National Symposium of Spanish Scholars was held in 1985. The historiansJanusz Tazbir and Jan Kienewicz wrote on Spanish themes, as did the literary scholars Gabriela Makowiecka, Henryk Ziomek, Beata Baczynska,Florian Śmieja, Piotr Sawicki, and Kazimierz Sabik. Grzegorz Bak studied the image of Spain in 19th-century Polish literature.[23]
The integration of Brazil intoMercosur in 1991 created a need for closer relations between Brazil and the Hispanic world, as well as better knowledge of the Spanish language within Brazil. For this reason, Brazil has promoted the inclusion of Spanish in the country's education system. A large core of Spanish scholars formed at theUniversity of São Paulo, includingFidelino de Figueiredo, Luis Sánchez y Fernández, and José Lodeiro. The year 1991 also marks the creation of theAnuario Brasileño de Estudios Hispánicos, whoseSuplemento: El hispanismo en Brasil[24] traces the history of Hispanic Studies in the country. In 2000 the first Congresso Brasileiro de Hispanistas took place, and its proceedings were published under the titleHispanismo 2000.[25] At that meeting, the Associação Brasileira de Hispanistas was established. The organization's second congress took place in 2002, and since then it has been held every two years.
Compared to Brazil, Portugal has shown less interest in Hispanism; it was not until 2005 that a national association for it was founded. Portuguese activities in this field are mostly of acomparatist nature and focus on Luso-Spanish topics, partly because of academic and administrative reasons. The journalPenínsulaArchived 10 June 2012 at theWayback Machine is one of the most important Hispanist journals in the country. Portuguese Hispanism appears somewhat limited, and to an extent there is a mutual distrust between the two cultures, motivated by a history of conflicts and rivalry. Nevertheless, Portuguese writers of the Renaissance—such as the dramatistGil Vicente,Jorge de Montemayor,Francisco Sá de Miranda, and the historianFrancisco Manuel de Mello—wrote in both Spanish and Portuguese.
The cultural relationship between Spain and Italy developed early in the Middle Ages, especially centered inNaples through the relation that it had with theCrown of Aragon and Sicily, and intensified during the Spanish Pre-Renaissance and Renaissance through Castile.Garcilaso de la Vega engaged members of theAccademia Pontaniana and introduced thePetrarchian metrical style and themes to Spanish lyric poetry. This close relation extended throughout the periods ofMannerism and theBaroque in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 18th century the poet Giambattista Conti (1741–1820) was perhaps the foremost Spanish scholar, translator and anthologist of Europe. Dramatist, critic, and theater historiographerPietro Napoli Signorelli (1731–1815) defended Spanish literature against critics such asGirolamo Tiraboschi andSaverio Bettinelli, who accused it of "bad taste", "corruption", and "barbarism".Giacomo Casanova andGiuseppe Baretti traveled throughout Spain, leaving interesting descriptions of their experiences: Baretti was fluent in Spanish. The critic Guido Bellico was in theReales Estudios de San Isidro with the eminent Arabist Mariano Pizzi. Among other prominent Italian Hispanists were Leonardo Capitanacci, Ignazio Gajone, Placido Bordoni, Giacinto Ceruti, Francesco Pesaro, Giuseppe Olivieri, Giovanni Querini and Marco Zeno.[26]
In the 19th century, Italian Romanticism took great interest in the Spanishromancero, with translations byGiovanni Berchet[27] in 1837 andPietro Monti in 1855.Edmondo de Amicis traveled throughout Spain and wrote abook of his impressions.Antonio Restori (1859–1928), a professor at the Universities of Messina and of Genoa, published some works of Lope de Vega and dedicated hisSaggi di bibliografia teatrale spagnuola (1927) to the bibliography of the Spanish theater; he also wroteIl Cid, studio storico-critico (1881) andLe gesta del Cid (1890).Bernardo Sanvisenti, a professor of Spanish language and literature at the University of Milan, wroteManuale di letteratura spagnuola (1907), as well as astudy (1902) on the influence ofBoccaccio,Dante andPetrarch in Spanish literature.
Italian Hispanism arose from three sources, already identifiable in the 19th century. The first of these was the Spanish hegemonic presence in the Italian peninsula, which sparked interest in the study of Spain and in the creation of works about Spain. Secondly, Italian Hispanism was encouraged by acomparatist approach, and in fact the first Italian studies on literature in Spanish were of a comparative nature, such asBenedetto Croce'sLa Spagna nella vita italiana durante la Rinascenza (1907) and the works ofArturo Farinelli and Bernardino Sanvisenti, which were dedicated to the relationships between Spain and Italy, Italy and Germany, and Spain and Germany. Thirdly, the development of Italian Hispanism was supported by Romance philology, especially through the works ofMario Casella (author ofCervantes: Il Chisciotte [1938]),Ezio Levi,Salvatore Battaglia, andGiovanni Maria Bertini (translator of Spanish modern poetry, especially the poems ofLorca).Cesare de Lollis also made important contributions to Cervantes studies.
The field of modern Hispanic Studies originated in 1945, with the trio ofOreste Macrì (editor of works ofAntonio Machado and of FrayLuis de León),Guido Mancini, andFranco Meregalli. Eventually Spanish-American studies emerged as an area of independent of the literature of Spain. Between 1960 and 1970 the first professorships of Spanish-American language and literature were created, pioneered by Giovanni Meo Zilio, who occupied the first chair of that sort created at theUniversity of Florence in 1968. He was followed byGiuseppe Bellini (historian of Spanish-American literature, translator ofPablo Neruda, and student ofMiguel Ángel Asturias);Roberto Paoli (Peruvianist and translator ofCésar Vallejo); andDario Puccini (student of the lyric poetry of SorJuana Inés de la Cruz, as well as that of the 20th century).
TheAssociation of Italian Hispanists (AISPI) was created in May 1973 and has held numerous congresses almost annually since then. Italian Hispanists includeSilvio Pellegrini,Pio Rajna,Antonio Viscardi,Luigi Sorrento,Guido Tammi,Francesco Vian,Juana Granados de Bagnasco,Gabriele Ranzato,Lucio Ambruzzi,Eugenio Mele,Manlio Castello,Francesco Ugolini, Lorenzo Giussi,Elena Milazzo,Luigi de Filippo,Carmelo Samonà,Giuseppe Carlo Rossi, the poetsGiuseppe Ungaretti (who translatedGóngora) andPier Paolo Pasolini,Margherita Morreale,Giovanni Maria Bertini,Giuliano Bonfante,Carlo Bo (who worked with the poetry ofJuan Ramón Jiménez),Ermanno Caldera,Rinaldo Froldi, andGuido Mancini (author of aStoria della letteratura spagnola.
At the time of its founding in 1948, the modern state of Israel already included a substantial Spanish-speaking community. Their language,Judeo-Spanish, was derived fromOld Spanish along a path of development that diverged from that of the Spanish of Spain and its empire, beginning in 1492, when theJews wereexpelled from Spain. Between the 16th and 20th centuries many of them lived in the oldOttoman Empire and North Africa. There are some 100,000 speakers of Judeo-Spanish in Israel today.
At present there are several Israeli media outlets in (standard Castilian) Spanish, some of which have a long history. The newsweeklyAurora, for example, was founded in the late 1960s, and today it also has anonline edition. Israel has at least three radio stations that broadcast in Spanish.
Modern Israeli Hispanists includeSamuel Miklos Stern (the discoverer of the Spanishkharjas and a student of theSpanish Inquisition), professorBenzion Netanyahu, and Haim Beinart. Other Israeli scholars have studied the literature and history of Spain, frequently influenced by the theses ofAmérico Castro.Don Quixote has been translated into Hebrew twice, first by Natan Bistritzky and Nahman Bialik (Jerusalem, Sifriat Poalim, 1958), and later (Tel Aviv: Hakibutz Hameuchad, 1994) by Beatriz Skroisky-Landau and Luis Landau, the latter a professor in the Department of Hebrew Literature atBen-Gurion University of the Negev and author ofCervantes and the Jews (Beer Sheva: Ben-Gurion University Press, 2002). The historianYosef Kaplan has written numerous works and has translatedIsaac Cardoso'sLas excelencias y calumnias de los hebreos into Hebrew. TheAsociación de Hispanistas de Israel was created on 21 June 2007 at theInstituto Cervantes de Tel Aviv, consisting of over thirty professors, researchers and intellectuals linked to the languages, literatures, history and cultures of Spain, Portugal, Latin America and the Judeo-Spanish Sephardic world. Its first meeting was convened by professorsRuth Fine (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), who was appointed the first president of the association; Raanán Rein (Tel Aviv University); Aviva Dorón (University of Haifa); and Tamar Alexander (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev).
Spain's links with the Arab world began in the Middle Ages with theMoorish conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Arabic-speakingMoorish kingdoms were present in Spain until 1492, when theReconquista defeated theEmirate of Granada. Many Moors remained in Spain until their final expulsion in 1609. TheSpanish Empire, at its height, included a number of Arabic-speaking enclaves in theMaghreb, such asSpanish Sahara andSpanish Morocco.
The Moroccan historianAhmed Mohammed al-Maqqari (c. 1591 – 1632) wrote about the Muslim dynasties in Spain. The Egyptian poetAhmed Shawqi (1869–1932) spent six years of exile in Andalusia. Perhaps the first "scientific" Arab Hispanist was the Lebanese writerShakib Arslan (1869–1946), who wrote a book about his trips to Spain in three volumes. The Egyptian writerTaha Husayn (1889–1973) promoted the renewal of relations with Spain, among other European countries of the Mediterranean, and led the creation of an edition of the great 12th-century Andalusian literary encyclopediaAl-Dakhira, ofIbn Bassam. Other important figures were 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Ahwani, 'Abd Allah 'Inan, Husayn Mu'nis, Salih al-Astar, Mahmud Mekki, and Hamid Abu Ahmad. Linked to theEgyptian Institute of Madrid are Ahmad Mukhtar al-'Abbadi (who specialized in the history of Moorish Granada), Ahmad Haykal, Salah Fadl, As'ad Sharif 'Umar, and Nagwa Gamal Mehrez. TheAsociación de Hispanistas de Egipto was formed in 1968. The First Colloquium of Arab Hispanism took place in Madrid in 1975.[28]
In spite ofa bitter war between Spain and the United Provinces in the late 16th century, Hispanism has deep roots in the Netherlands. The influence ofSpanish Golden Age literature can be seen in the work of the Dutch poet and playwrightGerbrand Bredero and in the translations ofGuilliam de Bay in the 17th century. Nineteenth-centuryRomanticism aroused Dutch curiosity about the exoticism of things Spanish. The ArabistReinhart Dozy (1820–1883) made important contributions to the study of the Moorish domination in Spain, includingHistoire des Musulmans d'Espagne (1861) and the continuationRecherches sur l'Histoire et littérature de l'Espagne, which was published in its definitive form in 1881. A few years later, the Dutch scholarFonger de Haan (1859–1930) held the chair of Spanish literature atBoston University. Two of his publications,Pícaros y ganapanesArchived 14 March 2012 at theWayback Machine (1899) andAn Outline of the History of the Novela Picarescain Spain (1903) still serve as starting points for research today. In 1918 he tried in vain to spark the interest of the StateUniversity of Groningen in Hispanic Studies, but nevertheless donated his library of Hispanic Studies to it a few years later.
Serious studies of literature gained new impetus thanks to the work ofJan te Winkel of theUniversity of Amsterdam who, with his seven-volumeDe Ontwikkelingsgang der Nederlandsche Letterkunde (1908–1921), drew attention to the influence that Spanish literature exerted on Dutch literature in the 17th century. Other researchers, such asWilliam Davids (1918),Joseph Vles (1926) andSimon Vosters (1955), continued in the same direction as te Winkel. Two Romanists who were of great importance to Dutch Hispanism were Salverda de Grave and Sneyders de Vogel.Jean Jacques Salverda de Grave (1863–1947) became a professor of Romance philology at theUniversity of Groningen in 1907, and he was succeeded byKornelis Sneyders de Vogel (1876–1958) in 1921. In 1906, for the first time since 1659, aSpanish/Dutch dictionary was published, followed in 1912 by aDutch/Spanish dictionary, both composed byA. A.Fokker. Since then many such dictionaries have been published, including one byC. F. A. van Dam and H. C. Barrau and another byS. A. Vosters. Many Spanish grammars in Dutch also have been published, includinga grammar byGerardus Johannes Geers (1924), one byJonas Andries van Praag (1957) and one byJos Hallebeek, Antoon van Bommel, and Kees van Esch (2004). Doctor W. J. van Baalen was an important popularizer of the history, customs, and wealth of Spanish America, producing ten books in those areas. Along with C. F. A. Van Dam, he founded the Nederlandsch Zuid-Amerikaansch Instituut in order to promote commercial and cultural contact between both worlds. The Groningen poetHendrik de Vries (1896–1989) travelled twelve times to Spain between 1924 and 1936 and—although his father, an eminent philologist and polyglot, always refused to study Spanish because of theEighty Years' War—the poet dedicated his book of poemsIberia (1964) to Spain.
In the Netherlands, the Institute of Hispanic Studies at theUniversity of Utrecht was founded in 1951 byCornelis Frans Adolf van Dam (who was a student ofRamón Menéndez Pidal) and has since been an important center for Spanish scholars. The Mexican Training Center at theUniversity of Groningen was established in 1993.
Johan Brouwer, who wrote his thesis on Spanish mysticism, produced twenty-two books on Spanish subjects, as well as numerous translations.Jonas Andries van Prague, a professor at Groningen, studied Spanish Golden Age theater in the Netherlands and theGeneration of '98, as well as theSephardic refugee writers in the Netherlands.Cees Nooteboom has written books about travel to Spain, includingRoads to Santiago.Barber van de Pol produced a Dutch translation ofDon Quixote in 1994, and Hispanism continues to be promoted by Dutch writers such as Rik Zaal (Alles over Spanje), Gerrit Jan Zwier, Arjen Duinker, Jean Pierre Rawie, Els Pelgrom (The Acorn Eaters), Chris van der Heijden (The Splendour of Spain from Cervantes to Velázquez),"Albert Helman", Maarten Steenmeijer, and Jean Arnoldus Schalekamp (This is Majorca: The Balearic Islands : Minorca, Ibiza, Formentera).
Miguel de Cervantes had an impact in Denmark, where hisDon Quixote was translated intoDanish (1776–1777) byCharlotte Dorothea Biehl, who also translated hisNovelas ejemplares (1780–1781).Hans Christian Andersen made a trip to Spain and kept a diary about his experiences. Other prominent Danish Hispanists includeKnud Togeby; Carl Bratli (Spansk-dansk Ordbog [Spanish/Danish dictionary], 1947); Johann Ludwig Heiberg (1791–1860,Calderón studies); Kristoffer Nyrop (1858–1931,Spansk grammatik); and Valdemar Beadle (Middle Ages and the Spanish and Italian Baroque).
InSweden, prominent Hispanists includeErik Staaf;Edvard Lidforss (translator ofDon Quixote into Swedish);Gunnar Tilander (publisher of medieval Spanishfueros);Alf Lombard; Karl Michaëlson;Emanuel Walberg; Bertil Maler (who editedTratado de las enfermedades de las aves de caza);Magnus Mörner;Bengt Hasselrot; andNils Hedberg.Inger Enkvist researched Latin American novels andJuan Goytisolo. Mateo López Pastor, author ofModern spansk litteratur (1960), taught and published in Sweden.
Hispanism was founded inNorway by professorMagnus Gronvold, who translatedDon Quixote into Norwegian in collaboration withNils Kjær. Leif Sletsjoe (author ofSancho Panza, hombre de bien) and Kurt E. Sparre (aCalderón scholar) were both professors at theUniversity of Oslo. Currently there is a strong and renewed interest in Hispanism among Norwegian youth, and the 21st century has seen the publication of at least three Spanish grammars for Norwegians—one byCathrine Grimseid (2005); another byJohan Falk, Luis Lerate, and Kerstin Sjölin (2008); and one byAna Beatriz Chiquito (2008). There is an Association of Norwegian Hispanism, a National Association of Professors of Spanish, and several journals, includingLa Corriente del Golfo (Revista Noruega de Estudios Latinoamericanos,Tribune, andRomansk forum.
InFinland, at the beginning of the 20th century there was an important group of Hispanists inHelsinki, includingOiva J. Tallgren (1878–1941; he adopted the surname Tuulio in 1933); his wifeTyyni Tuulio (1892–1991);Eero K. Neuvonen [de] (1904–1981), who studiedArabisms in Old Spanish; and Sinikka Kallio-Visapää (translator ofOrtega y Gasset).
In Romania, the initiator of Hispanism wasȘtefan Vârgolici, who translated a great part of the early 17th-centuryMiguel de Cervantes novelDon Quixote into Romanian and published—under the titleStudies on Spanish Literature (Jasi, 1868–1870)—works onCalderón, Cervantes, andLope de Vega, which had appeared in the journalConvorbiri literare (Literary Conversations).Alexandru Popescu-Telega (1889–1970) wrote a book onUnamuno (1924), a comparison between Romanian and Spanishfolklore (1927), a biography of Cervantes (1944), a translation from theromancero (1947), abook on Hispanic Studies in Romania (1964), and an anthology in Romanian.Ileana Georgescu,George Călinescu (Iscusitul hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha), andTudor Vianu (Cervantes) have published books on Cervantes.
There is an Asian Association of Spanish Scholars (Asociación Asiática de Hispanistas), which was founded in 1985 and meets every three years.
Hispanism in Asia and the Pacific is mostly related to the literature and languages of the Spanish/Novohispanic administration’s legacy in the Philippines, Mariana Islands, Guam and Palau, where Spanish has a history as a colonial language. In 1900, less than a million Filipinos spoke Spanish;estimates of the number of Filipinos whose first language is Spanish today vary widely, ranging from 2,660 to 400,000. Spanish remains perceivable in somecreole languages, such asChabacano. InManila, theInstituto Cervantes has given Spanish classes for years, and thePhilippine Academy of the Spanish Language is involved in the teaching and standard use of Spanish in the Philippines. But there is no institution or association that brings together and defends the interests of Hispanicity. The most important Spanish scholars—aside from the national hero, poet and novelistJosé Rizal (who wrote in Spanish)—are Antonio M. Molina (not the composerAntonio J. Molina), José María Castañer,Edmundo Farolan,Guillermo Gómez, Miguel Fernández Passion, Alfonso Felix, and Lourdes Castrillo de Brillantes. The weeklyNueva Era, edited byGuillermo Gómez Rivera, is the only newspaper in Spanish still published in the Philippines, although the quarterly journalRevista Filipina, edited by Edmundo Farolán, also exists, in print and online.
The first Japanese institution to offer Spanish language classes, in 1897, was the Language School of Tokyo, known today as theTokyo University of Foreign Studies. There,Gonzalo Jiménez de la Espada mentored the first Japanese Hispanists, including Hirosada Nagata (1885–1973, now considered a "patriarch" of Hispanism in Japan) and Shizuo Kasai. Meanwhile, theOsaka University of Foreign Studies established Hispanic Studies in its curriculum in 1921, but most university Hispanic Studies departments were founded in the 1970s and '80s. Translations ofDon Quixote into Japanese are at first incomplete and by way of an English version (e.g. one by Shujiro Watanabe in 1887, and others in 1893, 1901, 1902, and 1914). Japanese versions ofDon Quixote in its entirety—although still based on an English translation—were published in 1915 (by Hogetsu Shimamura and Noburu Katakami) and in 1927–28 (by Morita). In 1948, Hirosada Nagata published a nearly-complete direct (from the Spanish) Japanese translation. It fell to Nagata's student, Masatake Takahashi (1908–1984), to complete that translation (published in 1977). Meanwhile, an entire, direct Japanese translation ofDon Quixote was also produced (the two parts in 1958 and 1962) by Yu Aida[29] (1903–1971).[30]
TheAsociación Japonesa de Hispanistas was founded in Tokyo in 1955, consisting mostly of university professors. The association publishes the journalHispánica. The journalLingüística Hispánica is published by the Círculo de Lingüística Hispánica de Kansai.
Japanese Hispanism was surveyed by Ryohei Uritani in the article "Historia del hispanismo en el Japón", which was published in the journalEspañol actual: Revista de español vivo (48 [1987], 69–92).
The relations between Spain andKorea began withGregorio Céspedes in the 16th century, who was studied byChul Park. Spanish education in Korea has continued for the past fifty years, and there is currently a strong demand for it. Since 2001, Spanish has been an optional language in secondary education. The Asociación Coreana de Hispanistas was founded in 1981 and holds two annual congresses, one in June and another in December. It also publishes the journalHispanic Studies.
The Spanish-language portal[31] run by theInstituto Cervantes lists over 60 associations of Hispanists around the world, including the following:
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