Hispanics in the United States Air Force can trace their tradition of service back to theUnited States Army Air Forces (USAAF), themilitary aviation arm of theUnited States Army during and immediately afterWorld War II. The USAAF was the predecessor of theUnited States Air Force, which was formed as a separate branch ofthe military on September 18, 1947, under theNational Security Act of 1947.[1] In the U.S., the termHispanic categorizes any citizen or resident of the United States, of any racial background, of any country, and of any religion, who has at least one ancestor from the people ofSpain or is of non-Hispanic origin but has an ancestor from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central or South America, or some other Hispanic origin. The three largestHispanic groups in the United States are theMexican-Americans,Puerto Ricans, andCubans.[2][3][4] According to theU.S. Census Bureau the estimated Hispanic population of the United States is over 50 million, or 16% of the U.S. population, and Hispanics are the nation's largest ethnic minority.[5][6] The 2010 U.S. census estimate of over 50 million Hispanics in the U.S. doesnot include the 3.9 million residents ofPuerto Rico, thereby making the people of Hispanic origin the nation's largest ethnic or race minority as of July 1, 2005.[7][8]
Hispanics, both men and women, have reached the top ranks of the Air Force, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign shores. Hispanics, however currently account for a total of 4.9% of the enlisted personnel making the United States Air Force the military branch with the lowest average of Hispanic recruits.
Before the United States entered World War II, Hispanic Americans were already fighting on European soil in theSpanish Civil War. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attemptedcoup d'état by parts of thearmy, led by theNationalistGeneral Francisco Franco, against the government of theSecond Spanish Republic. Hispanic Americans fought on behalf of both of the factions involved, the "Nationalists" as members of the Spanish Army and the "Loyalists" (Republicans) either as members of theAbraham Lincoln International Brigade[9] or as aviators in theYankee Squadron led byBert Acosta (1895–1954).[10]
When the United States officially entered the war on December 7, 1941, Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of theUnited States Armed Forces as volunteers or through thedraft. Some Hispanics, such as Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini and Alberto A. Nido, served and fought for two different countries as members of theRoyal Canadian Air Force and the BritishRoyal Air Force before joining the United States Army Air Forces.[11]
Those who were qualified pilots or had received private flying lesson were assigned to the newly formed United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and served as active combatants in both the European and Pacific Theaters of war.
In 1944, Puerto Rican aviators were sent to the Tuskegee Army Air Field inTuskegee, Alabama to train the famed 99th Fighter Squadron of theTuskegee Airmen. The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African-American military aviators in the United States armed forces. Puerto Ricans were also involved in clerical positions with the Tuskegee unit. Among the Puerto Ricans who helped make the Tuskegee experiment a successful one were T/Sgt. Pablo Diaz Albortt, an NCO (Non Commissioned Officer) in charge of the Special Service Office, and Eugene Calderon, who was assigned to the "Red Tail" unit, as the Company Clerk.[12] By the end of the war, the Tuskegee Airmen were credited with 109 Luftwaffe aircraft shot down, a patrol boat run aground by machine-gun fire, and destruction of numerous fuel dumps, trucks and trains.[13]
Among the Hispanics who played an instrumental role as a commander during the conflict was Brigadier GeneralElwood R. "Pete" Quesada, (1904–1993). Quesada, (who eventually would become a lieutenant general), was assigned as abrigadier general in October 1940 tointelligence in the Office of the Chief of Air Corps. He became commanding general of the 9th Fighter Command where he established advanced headquarters on theNormandy beachhead onD-Day plus one, and directed his planes in aerial cover and air support for the Allied invasion of the European continent. He was the foremost proponent of "the inherent flexibility of air power", a principle he helped prove during World War II.[14]
In December 1942, Quesada took the First Air Defense Wing to North Africa. Shortly thereafter, he was given command of the XII Fighter Command and in this capacity would work out the mechanics ofclose air support and Army-Air Force cooperation.[14]
The successful integration of air and land forces in theTunisia campaign forged by Quesada and the Allied leaders became a blueprint for operations incorporated into Army Air Forces field regulations—FM 100-20, "Command and Employment of Air Power", first published on July 21, 1943—and provided the Allies with their first victory in the European war. Principles such as the co-equality of ground and air force commanders, centralized command of tactical aircraft to exploit "the inherent flexibility of air power", and the attainment of air superiority over the battlefield as a prerequisite for successful ground operations formed the core of tactical air doctrine. In October 1943, Quesada assumed command of the IX Fighter Command in England, and his forces provided air cover for thelandings on Normandy Beach. Among Quesada's many military decorations were theDistinguished Service Medal withoak leaf cluster;Distinguished Flying Cross; Purple Heart and an Air Medal with two silver star devices.[14]
A "flying ace" or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat. The term "ace in a day" is used to designate a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more enemy aircraft in a single day.[15] Since World War I, a number of pilots have been honored as "Ace in a Day".[16]
First LieutenantOscar F. Perdomo, (1919–1976), the son of Mexican parents, was born inEl Paso, Texas. When the war broke out, Perdomo joined theUnited States Army Air Forces (USAAF) as an aviation cadet and was trained to pilot theP-47 Thunderbolt. After receiving his pilot training, he was assigned to the 464th Fighter Squadron, which was part of the 507th Fighter Group that was sent to the Pacific Island ofIe Shima off the west coast ofOkinawa.
Theatomic bomb was dropped onNagasaki, Japan on August 9, 1945, but while the Allies awaited Japan's response to the demand to surrender, the war continued. On August 13, 1945, 1st Lt. Perdomo shot down fourNakajima Ki-84 "Frank" fighters and oneYokosuka K5Y "Willow" Type 93 biplane trainer. This action took place nearKeijo/Seoul, Korea when 38 Thunderbolts of the 507th Fighter Group encountered approximately 50 enemy aircraft. This action was Lt. Perdomo's tenth and final combat mission, and the five confirmed victories made him an "Ace in a Day" and earned him the distinction of being the last "Ace" of World War II. He was awarded theDistinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in action and theAir Medal with oneoak leaf cluster.[16]
Lieutenant ColonelDonald S. Lopez Sr., USAAF fighter ace was assigned to the 23rd Fighter Group under the command of GeneralClaire Chennault. The mission of the fighter group (the "Flying Tigers") was to help defend Chinese nationals against Japanese invaders. During 1943–1944, Lopez was credited with shooting down five Japanese fighters, four in a CurtissP-40 and one in a North AmericanP-51.[17]
Captain Michael Brezas, USAAF fighter ace, arrived inLucera, Italy during the summer of 1944, joining the 48th Fighter Squadron of the 14th Fighter Group. Flying theP-38 aircraft, Lt. Brezas downed 12 enemy planes within two months. He received the Silver Star Medal, the Distinguished Flying Cross, and the Air Medal with eleven oak leaf clusters.[18]
CaptainMihiel "Mike" Gilormini,Royal Air Force and USAAF, was a flight commander whose last combat mission was attacking the airfield atMilano, Italy. His last flight in Italy gave air cover for GeneralGeorge C. Marshall's visit toPisa. Gilormini was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal, five Distinguished Flying Crosses, and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters.[19]
CaptainAlberto A. Nido,Royal Canadian Air Force, the British Royal Air Force and the USAAF. He flew missions as a bomber pilot for the RCAF and as aSupermarine Spitfire fighter pilot for the RAF. As member of the RAF, he belonged to 67th Reconnaissance Squadron who participated in 275 combat missions. Nido later transferred to the USAAF's 67th Fighter Group as aP-51 Mustang fighter pilot. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with fouroak leaf clusters and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters.[20]
CaptainRobert L. Cardenas, USAAF, served as aB-24 aircraft pilot in the European Theater of Operations with the 506th Bombardment Squadron. He was awarded the Air Medal and two oak leaf clusters for bombing missions before being shot down over Germany in March 1944. Despite head wounds fromflak, he made his way back to Allied control.[21]
2nd LieutenantCésar Luis González, a co-pilot of aC-47, was the first Puerto Rican pilot in the United States Army Air Forces. He was one of the initial participants of the invasion ofSicily on July 10, 1943, also known asOperation Husky. During the invasion of Sicily, he flew on two night missions, the first on July 9, where his mission was to release paratroops of82nd Airborne Division on the area ofGela and the second on July 11, when he dropped reinforcements in the area. His unit was awarded a "DUC" for carrying out this second mission in spite of bad weather and heavy attack by enemy ground and naval forces. González died on November 22, 1943, when his plane crashed during training off the end of the runway atCastelvetrano. He was posthumously promoted to first lieutenant[22]
LieutenantRichard Gomez Candelaria, USAAF, was a P-51 Mustang pilot from the 435th Fighter Squadron of the 479th Fighter Group. With six aerial victories to his credit, Candelaria was the only pilot in his squadron to make "ace". Most of his victories were achieved on a single mission on April 7, 1945, when he found himself the lone escort protecting a formation of USAAF B-24 Liberators. Candelaria defended the bombers from at least 15 German fighters, single-handedly destroying four before help arrived. He was also credited with a probable victory on anMe 262 during this engagement. Six days later, Candelaria was shot down by ground fire, and spent the rest of the war as a POW. After the war, Candelaria served in the Air National Guard, reaching the rank of Colonel prior to his retirement.[23]
Lieutenant Francisco Mercado Jr., USAAF, flew 35 combat missions as a bombardier over enemy occupied Continental Europe as a member of the 853rd Bomb Squadron, 491st Bomb Group, 8th Air Force. He was awarded the Air Medal with four Oak Leaf Cluster and the Distinguished Flying Cross. He flew ten missions as the Squadron Lead Bombardier, and one as the Group Lead Bombardier on December 30, 1944, on a mission to the Railroad Bridge atAltenahr, Germany. On July 21, 1944, he earned a membership into the exclusive "Caterpillar Club" after he parachuted over England while returning from a mission with a crippled B-24.[24]
LieutenantJosé Antonio Muñiz served with distinction in theChina-Burma-India Theater. During his tour of duty he flew 20 combat missions against theImperial Japanese Army Air Force and shot down aMitsubishi A6M Zero.[25]
MajorVicente T. Ximenes graduated from Bombardier School atKirtland Air Force Base as a second lieutenant in 1941. During the war, Ximenes flew 50 missions as a lead bombardier in North Africa and was later awarded theDistinguished Flying Cross[26] for bravery under fire. After serving in the war, he became an Air Force flying instructor at theGoodfellow Air Force Base from 1943 to 1946.
Technical Sergeant Clement Resto, USAAF, was not an "ace" but served with the 303rd Bomb Group and participated in numerous bombing raids over Germany. During a bombing mission over Duren, Germany, Resto's plane, a B-17, was shot down. He was captured by theGestapo and sent toStalag XVII-B where he spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of war. Resto, who lost an eye during his last mission, was awarded a Purple Heart, aPOW Medal and an Air Medal with onebattle star after he was liberated from captivity.[27][28]
Corporal Frank Medina, USAAF, was an air crew member on a B-24 that was shot down over Italy. He was the only crew member to evade capture. Medina explained that his ability to speak Spanish had allowed him to communicate with friendly Italians who helped him avoid capture for eight months behind enemy lines.[29]
When Staff Sergeant Ernest Gallego, USAAF tried to enlist, he was too young and when he was finally of age, he failed the depth perception test and therefore chose gunnery school. Gallego and his crew flew on many missions from their base in Italy.[30]
One of the first Hispanic women to serve in the USAAF was Staff Sergeant Eva Romero Jacques. Jacques had three years of college and she spoke both Spanish and English. She spent two years in the Pacific Theater. She spent 1944, in New Guinea and 1945 in the Philippines, as an administrative aide. She survived a plane disaster when the craft in which she was on crashed in the jungles ofNew Guinea.[30]
The United States Air Force was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947, under the National Security Act of 1947. That same year Quesada was promoted to lieutenant general and appointed as the first commander of theTactical Air Command (TAC). However, Quesada quickly became disillusioned as he saw how TAC was being ignored while funding and promotions were largely going to theStrategic Air Command. In December 1948, Air Force Chief of StaffHoyt Vandenberg stripped TAC of its planes and pilots and reduced its status to that of a planning headquarters under the newly formed Continental Air Command. Quesada protested and asked for a reassignment. In 1951, Quesada requested an early retirement from the Air Force.[31]
Among the Hispanics who continued to serve in the newly formed Air Force where Major Oscar F. Perdomo, who retired in 1950, Lieutenant Colonel Donald S. Lopez Sr., who was an associate professor of thermodynamics at the United States Air Force Academy, retiring from the Air Force in 1964.
Captain Robert Cardenas, who piloted theXB-42 Mixmaster andXB-43 Jetmaster, was assigned chief test pilot for bomber aircraft and flew all prototypes of that class for the next four years.[32] On October 14, 1947, Cardenas was named officer in charge of operations and was the command pilot for theB-29 Superfortress that launched theX-1 experimental rocket plane in whichChuck Yeager became the first man to fly faster than the speed of sound.[21] In 1948, then-Major Cardenas was the Officer in Charge of Flight Test Division at Muroc Air Force Base and was Chief Air Force Test Pilot of theNorthrop YB-49 flying wing.[21]
Colonel Mihiel Gilormini, was named base commander to the 198th Fighter Squadron in Puerto Rico. Gilormini and Colonel Alberto A. Nido, together with Lieutenant Colonel José Antonio Muñiz, played an instrumental role in the creation of thePuerto Rico Air National Guard on November 23, 1947. The Puerto Rico Air National Guard is a part of the Air Reserve Component (ARC) of the United States Air Force.[33] Both Gilormini and Nido were eventually promoted to brigadier general and served as commanders of PRANG. In 1963, the Air National Guard Base, at the San Juan International airport in Puerto Rico, was renamed "Muñiz Air National Guard Base" in honor of Lt. Col. José Antonio Muñiz who perished on July 4, 1960, when hisF-86 crashed during takeoff during the 4th of July festivities in Puerto Rico.[34]
The Korean War was an escalation of acivil war between two rival Korean regimes, each of which was supported by external powers, with each trying to topple the other through political and guerrilla tactics.[35] The conflict was expanded by the United States and the Soviet Union's involvement as part of the largerCold War. The main hostilities were during the period from June 25, 1950, until thearmistice (ceasefire agreement) was signed on July 27, 1953.[36]
In July 1950, there were about 20,000 Hispanics in the armed forces. Over the next three years, nearly 148,000 Hispanic-Americans volunteered for or were drafted into military service. As in other conflicts, Hispanics fought as members of the Armed Forces.[37]
In 1953,Salvador E. Felices, who joined the Air Force in 1947, flew in 19 combat missions overNorth Korea, during theKorean War, as combat operation officer for the 344th Bombardment Squadron. In 1954, he was reassigned and stationed at the Castle Air Force Base inCalifornia. He was assigned in 1952, to the 303rd Bombardment Wing as the 359th Bombardment Squadron operations officer. Felices participated in a bombing competition, using aB-29 Superfortress equipped with an APQ-7radar set and a Norden bombsight rate head. This would eventually lead the way to the development of the current techniques of synchronous radar bombing used today.
During the war,Orlando Llenza flew as a pilot in the 9th Air Refueling Squadron. During his career he flew theT-6 Texan,B-25 Mitchell,Boeing KB-29M tanker,KC-97 Stratofreighter tanker,T-33 Shooting Star,F-86 Sabre D, E, F and H models,F-104 Starfighter, and theC-47 Skytrain,C-54 Skymaster,C-131 Samaritan transports. After Llenza retired from active duty he was named Adjutant General of the Puerto Rico National Guard by Puerto Rico's GovernorCarlos Romero Barceló, a position which he held from 1977 to 1983. He retired with the rank of major general.[38]
Capt.Manuel John "Pete" Fernandez, was the third-leading American ace in the Korean War. Fernandez had 14.5 kills during his 9 months in Korea. Prior to this Capt Fernandez, who joined the Air Force's predecessor, the USAAF during WW II, was an advanced instructor at Nellis Air Force Base Gunnery School in Las Vegas, NV.[39]
Cardenas was assigned to Wright Field andEdwards Air Force Base testing new fighters and bombers during the Korean War, he was assigned to Wright Field andEdwards Air Force Base testing new fighters and bombers.[21]
In 1955, Felices completed the instructor course for theB-52. In January 1957, he participated in a historic project that was given to Fifteenth Air Force by the Strategic Air Command headquarters known as "Operation Power-Flite".[40][41]Operation Power-Flite was the first around the world flight by an all-jet aircraft. He later completed a course on the KC-135 aircraft at theBoeing Company Ground School and participated in its flight test program. He wrote the first flight curriculum and initial qualification requirements for future SAC pilots.[40] In July 1957, Felices delivered the first KC-135 to SAC Headquarters and he was the first to pilot the first flight of a KC-135 made by the then joint Chiefs of Staff. In 1958, he was awarded theAir Force Commendation Medal for landing a B-52 without the right rear landing gear.
Carmelita Vigil-Schimmenti joined the Air Force in 1958 and held clinical, teaching and administrative positions all over the world.[42]
The war was fought between thecommunistNorth Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government ofSouth Vietnam, supported by the United States and other nations.[43] The United States entered the war to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider strategy ofcontainment.Military advisors arrived beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s andcombat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Involvement peaked in 1968 at the time of theTet Offensive.[44] The U.S. government did not begin keeping separate statistics on Hispanics until 1979.[45] Therefore, the exact number of Hispanics who served in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era is unknown. The statistics that were kept by the Department of Defense, in accordance to the Vietnam War Statistics, included Hispanics among Caucasians.[46]
Then Colonel Cardenas flewF-105 Thunderchief combat missions during the war and was later assigned toMcConnell AFB as a trainer for the F-105. In 1968, Colonel Cardenas was promoted to brigadier general and assigned to command of the Air Force Special Operations Force atEglin Air Force Base. Following his assignment to Eglin AFB, he became vice commander of the16th Air Force inSpain. In 1968, Colonel Cardenas was promoted to brigadier general and assigned to Command of the Air Force Special Operations Force atEglin Air Force Base. Following his assignment to Eglin AFB, he became vice commander of the16th Air Force inSpain. There he negotiated withMuammar al-Gaddafi the withdrawal of US forces fromWheelus Air Base inLibya. Cardenas retired as a brigadier general in 1973.[21]
Major General Salvador E. Felices held various positions within the military. In June 1968, he was named commander of the 306th Bombardment Wing. He flew 39 combat bombing missions overNorth Vietnam during theVietnam War in a B-52 aircraft. In 1969, he became the commander of the 823rd Air Division which covered the regions ofFlorida,Puerto Rico,North Carolina andGeorgia. In May 1970, Felices was named Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff at the Headquarters ofStrategic Air Command. He was responsible for SAC's intercontinental ballistic missile operational testing programs.[41]
Brigadier GeneralAntonio Maldonado, who in 1967 became the youngest pilot and aircraft commander of aB-52 Stratofortress nuclear bomber, was assigned in January 1971, to the 432nd Tactical Fighter Reconnaissance Wing,Udon Royal Thai Air Force Base inThailand. His active participation in the war included 183 air combat missions over North and South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia logging more than 400 combat flying hours in the F-4C Phantom.[47]
Brigadier GeneralAntonio J. Ramos, was a lieutenant in November 1971, assigned to the 310th Tactical Airlift Squadron, Phan Rang Air Base and Tan Son Nhut Air Base, South Vietnam. In August 1972, was transferred to U-Tapao Royal Thai Naval Airfield in Thailand where he was the Base Operations Officer until November 1972.[48]
Brigadier GeneralJose M. Portela, as a first lieutenant, was sent to the Republic of Vietnam during the war and participated in numerous combat missions. On June 8, 1972, he was promoted to captain and in September 1972, was reassigned to the 3rd Military Airlift Squadron atCharleston Air Force Base,South Carolina as a C-5 pilot. During his stint there he was assigned to theC-141s and in 1972 became the youngestC-141 Starlifter aircraft commander and captain at the age of 22.[49] He served at CAF until July 1973, when he joined the Air Force Reserve as a C-5A Initial Cadre at the 312th Airlift Squadron atTravis Air Force Base inCalifornia.[49]
Brigadier GeneralRuben A. Cubero was a captain when he was sent to the Republic of Vietnam in May 1969 and was assigned to the 1st Brigade, 25th Infantry Division, 19th Tactical Air Support Squadron, Tay Ninh West where he flew anOV-10 and served as a forward air controller. In November 1969, he was reassigned to the 19th Tactical Air Support Squadron, at Bien Hoa Air Base.[50]
ColonelHector Andres Negroni, was a captain when he participated in combat missions during the war and accumulated over 600 combat hours. During his tour he served in the 553rd Reconnaissance Squadron stationed inKorat, Thailand and as Chief of Combat Operation in the 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron inUdon, Thailand.[51]
Brigadier GeneralCarmelita Vigil-Schimmenti obtained a Bachelor of Science in nursing in 1966 and a Masters of Arts in public health in 1974. She attended the Air Force Flight Nurse School, the Air War College and the Inter-Agency Institute. Vigil-Schimmenti served in the Pacific during the Vietnam War. In June 1968, Vigil-Schimmenti, was named the charge nurse in the school health program and primary care screening nurse at USAF Dispensary, Kadena Air Base, Okinawa.[42]
On April 15, 1986, MajorFernando L. Ribas-Dominicci was one of the pilots who participated in the Libyan air raid, known asOperation El Dorado Canyon, as member of the48th Tactical Fighter Wing. His F-111F was shot down in action over the disputed Gulf of Sidra off the Libyan coast. Ribas-Dominicci and his weapons systems officer, Capt.Paul Lorence, were the only U.S. casualties of said operation.[52] Both men's names are engraved in the F-111 "Vark" Memorial Park located inClovis, New Mexico. Ribas-Dominicci was awarded thePurple Heart and posthumously promoted to the rank ofmajor, effective April 15, 1986.[53]
On September 11, 2001,United Airlines Flight 93 washijacked by four members ofal-Qaeda terrorists as part of theSeptember 11 attacks. The hijackers breached the aircraft's cockpit and overpowered the flight crew approximately 46 minutes after takeoff.Ziad Jarrah, a trained pilot, then took control of the aircraft and diverted it back toward the east coast of the United States in the direction ofWashington, D.C. The hijackers' specific target was theUnited States Capitol.[54]
Lieutenant ColonelMarc H. Sasseville, of Puerto Rican heritage, called Brigadier General David Wherley, the commander of the113th Wing, to get permission to use their "war-reserve missiles.[55]
Four pilots were available for the mission and received authorization to get airborne in their fighter jets, among them Lieutenant Colonel Marc Sasseville and LieutenantHeather Penney.[55]
The mission was to find United Airlines Flight 93 and destroy it however they could. Since the fighter jets were absent of missiles and packed only with dummy ammunition from a recent training mission, there was only one way to do it and that was by ramming the aircraft.[55]Sasseville, flew his aircraft alongside the aircraft of Lt. Penney. According to Penney, Sasseville told her: "We don't train to bring down airliners. If you just hit the engine, it could still glide and you could guide it to a target". He also told her that he would take out the cockpit and that she should take the tail.[55]The fighter jets passed over the ravagedPentagon building, however it was not until hours later that they would find out that United 93 had already gone down in a field outside Shanksville, Pennsylvania, killing all 44 people aboard including the 4 hijackers.[55]
In 2001,Noel Zamot was assigned to the Directorate of Operations,United States Space Command, Paterson Air Force Base in Colorado as Deputy Chief of Operations Integration. According to the United States Air Force, Zamot's mission as Deputy Chief of Operations in the aftermath of theSeptember 11 attacks was to integrate emerging national capabilities into a joint counter terrorism operation.[56][57] He developed concepts for long-term Information Operations and Space Control activities for the US enabling a multi-spectral combat response. He was also involved in the development of theSpecial Access Program (SAP) systems and in the development of new counter-space capabilities which resulted in a more effective counter-terrorism operation across 3 combat zones.[57][56]
Colonel Evelio Otero Jr. helped establish the U.S. Central Command Headquarters atQatar. When the United States military began OperationsEnduring Freedom andIraqi Freedom, Otero was called upon to establish the Intelligence Division which supported the military operations. The first Sensitive Site Exploitation of theBaath Party Headquarters inBaghdad was led by Otero. He was promoted to colonel in 2004 and as Chief Coalition Intelligence Center in the Central Command at MacDill Air Force Base. His assignment included multiple trips to the Coalition Intelligence Center in Iraq where he worked on Detainee Interrogation Release Parameters. He founded thePolish andColombian Joint Special Operations Commands while he was assigned toUnited States Special Operations Command.[58]
TheUnited States Air Force Academy (USAFA orAir Force),[59] located immediately north ofColorado Springs inEl Paso County,Colorado,United States, is an institution for the undergraduate education of officers for theUnited States Air Force. Graduates of the four-year program receive aBachelor of Science degree and most are commissioned assecond lieutenants in theUnited States Air Force. As of 2010, Hispanics made up 10% of the academy's student body.[60]
In 1961, Héctor Andrés Negroni earned a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering with a major in public affairs in the Air Force Academy making him one of the first Hispanics to graduate from said academy. Negroni was commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Air Force and was awarded his navigator wings.[61]
On October 7, 1975, PresidentGerald R. Ford signed legislation permitting women to enter the United States service academies. On June 26, 1976, CaptainLinda Garcia Cubero was among 157 women that entered the Air Force Academy with the Class of 1980. In 1980, Cubero made history when she became a member of the first class of women to graduate from the United States Air Force Academy. There she earned her BS degree in political science and her free-fall parachute wings. Upon her graduation she was commissioned a second lieutenant.[62]
In July 1991, Ruben A. Cubero was named dean of the faculty, becoming the first person of Hispanic heritage in that position. As dean of the faculty, Cubero commanded the 865-member dean of the faculty mission element and oversaw the annual design and instruction of more than 500 undergraduate courses to 4,000 cadets in 19 academic departments. He led and supervised four support staff agencies and directed the operation of faculty resources involving more than $250 million. Cubero established the Air Force Academy's first Cooperative Research and Development Agreement. On August 3, 1991, Cubero was promoted to the rank of brigadier general.[50] Cubero retired from the Air Force on July 1, 1998. He had more than 6,000 flight hours.[63]
In 2010, ColonelNoel Zamot was namedCommander of the United States Air Force's elite Test Pilot School, located inEdwards Air Force Base, California. Among his duties was to provide program management to eight flight research programs, liaising with international partners, and providing academic oversight for a Master's level engineering program. He created nation's first system for testing complex military systems in contested cyberspace. Other achievements during his tenure include:[64][65][66][67][68][69]
Zamot retired from the United States Air Force in 2012, after 25 years of military service.
In 1973, Héctor Andrés Negroni was assigned to the 317th Tactical Airlift Wing, Pope Air Force Base,North Carolina, serving as an aircraft commander, flight commander, assistant operations officer, and wing chief of aircrew training. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1977 and became the Commander of the 3rd Mobile Aerial Port Squadron. In 1978, he was named the chief of liaison for the Joint United States Military Group inSpain. TheSpanish Government presented Negroni with its highest Air Force peacetime award, the Aeronautical Merit Cross for his contributions to the successful implementation of the United States-Spain Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation and in 1981 promoted to Colonel.[61]
José M. Portela served in the position of Assistant Adjutant General for Air while also serving as commander of thePuerto Rico Air National Guard. Portela is the only reservist ever to serve as director of mobility forces for Bosnia.[70] Besides the Vietnam War, he also participated in the following military operations: ThePersian Gulf War,Operation Just Cause inPanama andOperation Desert Shield/Storm. Portela retired with the rank of brigadier general.[70]
Lieutenant General Leo Marquez was the deputy chief of staff for logistics and engineering, Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C. He was awarded a commission through the Air Force Reserve Officer's Training Corps program upon graduation from New Mexico State University and entered active duty as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Air Force in November 1954. In June 1979 he became deputy chief of staff for plans and programs at Headquarters Air Force Logistics Command, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Marquez served as commander of Ogden Air Logistics Center, Hill Air Force Base, Utah, from July 1981 to July 1983. Marquez, who retired on August 1, 1987, was promoted to lieutenant general on August 1, 1983.[71]
In 1980, then LieutenantOlga E. Custodio made history when she became the first femaleHispanic U.S. military pilot. She holds the distinction of being first Latina to complete U.S. Air Force military pilot training. One of her assignments in the military was that of instructor pilot where she was the first femaleNorthrop T-38 Talon (T-38) UPT flight instructor at Laughlin AFB. After retiring in 2003, with the rank lieutenant colonel, she became the firstLatina to become a commercial airline captain.[72]
In April 1984, Antonio Maldonado was transferred toK.I. Sawyer Air Force Base inMichigan. During the years which he spent there (1984–1987) he assumed various leadership positions: Deputy Commander for Operations (1984), 410th Bombardment Wing; Vice Commander (September 1984)and Commander(July 1985). While commanding the 410th, General Maldonado won numerous top Air Force awards including the coveted Omaha Trophy (best combat Wing) and the 390th Bombardment Group Memorial Trophy (best Wing Commander). In May 1987, Maldonado was reassigned once more to the Pentagon where he served as Chief, Strategic Operations Division, Operations Directorate, Office of theJoint Chiefs of Staff. In June 1988 he became Deputy Director for Operations, National Military Command Center, the Pentagon. On September 1 of that same year, he was promoted to the rank ofBrigadier General.[47]In July 1989, Maldonado was named Chief, U.S. Office of Defense Cooperation,Madrid, Spain, becoming the senior Department of Defense representative to that country. His responsibilities included providing overall direction to U.S. elements in Spain on status of forces, security assistance programs and other defense and base agreement matters. He also provided overall coordination for US offensive operations out of Spain during the 1991 Persian Gulf War.[47] Brigadier General Maldonado retired from the United States Air Force on September 1, 1991, with more than 4,000 hours of flight, after 27 years of service of active duty service.
In 1985, Carmelita Vigil-Schimmenti became the first Hispanic female to attain the rank of brigadier general in the Air Force and was the first female general from New Mexico. She received her nursing diploma from Regina School of Nursing in Albuquerque. Because of her work on the base, she decided to join the military as a nurse. Vigil-Schimmenti retired from the Air Force in October, 1988.[42]
In 1992,[73] Graciela Tiscareño-Sato became the first documented Hispanic female to earn anAir Medal for combat air operations.[74] A First Lieutenant at the time, Tiscareño-Sato served as a navigator on board the KC-135R aerial refueling tanker, flying dozens of O-1 sorties over Baghdad refueling combat air patrol fighters during Operation Southern Watch upon the end of Operation Desert Storm. This was her first of many deployments and took place before Congress lifted the Combat Exclusion Law for women and before women were allowed to be assigned to combat aircraft.
Tiscareño-Sato was born to Mexican immigrants in El Paso, Texas in 1967 and grew up in Colorado as the oldest of five Mexican-America children. She left her family home to attend the University of California at Berkeley on an Air Force ROTC Scholarship. She majored in Architecture and Environmental Design while completing the Aerospace Studies program required of all cadets. After graduation, she was commissioned atop the Berkeley campanile by her parents, Arturo and Agustina Tiscareño and received a regular commission as an AFROTC Distinguished Graduate. She completed Undergraduate Navigator Training at Mather Air Force base in March 1991, the only woman in her class. Tiscareño-Sato was promoted to the rank of captain in 1994 and deployed all over the globe in both aircrew and liaison officer roles, including working for NATO in the Combined Air Operations Center in Vicenza, Italy during the Bosnia-Herzegovina conflict. Captain Graciela Tiscareño-Sato served until her separation date in October 1999 after completing her master's degree in international business management and opting for a career change into tech marketing in Silicon Valley. As an active veteran, mother of three, she has won six international book awards for her[75] bilingual Captain Mama children's book which she shares with school children and teachers from coast-to-coast. Her Captain Mama books are the first children's books in Spanish and English featuring women flying military airplanes.[76]
In April 2003, Brigadier GeneralRicardo Aponte became the Deputy Director for Operations, Headquarters United States Southern Command in Miami, Florida. In October 2004, he was named Director, J-7, of the United States Southern Command. His directorate is the focal point for transformation initiatives, knowledge management, experimentation and gaming within the U. S. Southern Command. The directorate seeks out new concepts and rigorously tests them both in simulation and as part of operational experiments. The first transformation initiative was the start-up of the Secretary of Defense mandated Standing Joint Force Headquarters (SJFHQ). The SJFHQ, consists of planning, operations, knowledge management, and information superiority experts who form the backbone of the Joint Task Force command structure in the event of contingency operations. Aponte retired July 1, 2007.[77]
In August 1997, Antonio J. Ramos became the firstHispanic to serve as commander, Air Force Security Assistance Center,Air Force Materiel Command, and dual-hatted as Assistant to the Commander for International Affairs, HeadquartersAir Force Materiel Command.[48] Brigadier General Ramos retired from the Air Force on August 1, 1999.
Chief Master SergeantRamón Colón-López is pararescueman who on June 13, 2007, became the first Hispanic, among the first six airmen, to be awarded the newly createdAir Force Combat Action Medal, bestowed upon him byAir Force Chief of Staff GeneralTeed Michael Moseley at the Air Force Memorial, in Washington, DC.[78] The medal was created to recognize Air Force members who are engaged in air or ground combat "outside the wire" in combat zones. Airmen who are under direct and hostile fire, or who personally engaged hostile forces with direct and lethal fire are eligible to receive the award. On March 11, 2004, Colón-López together with his Advance Force Operations Team and elements of the Afghan National Strike Unit, participated in an operation which required the capture of a high level target and a follow-on site exploitation with the intention of preventing the proliferation of chemical weapons. His helicopter came upon hostile enemy fire, however Colón-López continued on his mission which resulted in the capture of 10 of the enemy and the destruction of multiple rocker propelled grenades and small caliber weapons. In January 2005, after Colón-López returned to the United States, he was named Superintendent of Training and later Commandant of the Pararescue and Combat Rescue Officer School.[79]
On September 17, 1968, PresidentLyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid-September as National Hispanic Heritage Week. In 1988, PresidentRonald Reagan extended that week to a month-long observance. The National Hispanic Heritage Month is a time for Americans to educate themselves about the influences Hispanic culture has had on society.[80] The Air Force has realized that the fastest growing group in both the United States and the Marines are Hispanics, and have joined the rest of the United States in the celebration of the contributions whichHispanics in the United Air Force have made to that military institution by celebratingNational Hispanic Heritage Month from September 15 through October 15.[80]
However, the number of Hispanics in the Air Force do not represent their percentage of the population. Today the United States Department of Defense faces a nationwide problem in recruiting men for the all volunteerArmed Forces because of the war in Iraq and Afghanistan, yet according to the data provided by the Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense, Hispanic recruiting numbers have not increased into that service.[81] Compared with theUnited States Marine Corps where Hispanics comprise 18 percent of the enlisted personnel, the Air Force Hispanics only comprise 4.9 percent of the enlisted men.[82]
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