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Hindustani, also known asHindi-Urdu, is the vernacular form of twostandardizedregisters used as official languages inIndia andPakistan, namelyHindi andUrdu. It comprises several closely related dialects in the northern, central and northwestern parts of theIndian subcontinent but is mainly based onKhariboli of theDelhi region. As anIndo-Aryan language, Hindustani has a core base that traces back toSanskrit but as a widely-spoken lingua franca, it has a large lexicon ofloanwords,^[1][2] acquired through centuries of foreign rule and ethnic diversity.

Standard Hindi derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from Sanskrit while standard Urdu derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary fromPersian andArabic. Standard Hindi and Urdu are used primarily in public addresses and radio or TV news, while the everyday spoken language is one of the several varieties of Hindustani, whose vocabulary contains words drawn fromPersian,Arabic, andSanskrit. In addition, spoken Hindustani includes words fromEnglish and theDravidian languages, as well as several others.

Hindustani developed over several centuries throughout much of the northern subcontinent including the areas that comprise modern-day India, Pakistan, and Nepal. In the same way that the core vocabulary of English evolved from Old English (Anglo-Saxon) but assimilated many words borrowed from French and other languages (whose pronunciations often changed naturally so as to become easier for speakers of English to pronounce), what may be called Hindustani can be said to have evolved from Sanskrit while borrowing many Persian and Arabic words over the years, and changing the pronunciations (and often even the meanings) of these words to make them easier for Hindustani speakers to pronounce. Many Persian words entered the Hindustani lexicon due to the influence of theMughal rulers of north India, who followed a very Persianised culture and also spoke Persian. Many Arabic words entered Hindustani via Persian, which had previously been assimilated into the Persian language due to the influence of Arabs in the area. The dialect of Persian spoken by the Mughal ruling elite was known as 'Dari', which is the dialect of Persian spoken in modern-dayAfghanistan. Therefore, Hindustani is the naturally developed common language of north India. This article will deal with the separate categories of Hindustani words and some of the common words found in the Hindustani language.

Hindustani words, apart from loans, basically derive from two linguistic categories:

• Indo-Aryan (words classified by grammarians astadbhava, or "inherited"):Sauraseni Prakrit and itsapabhraṃśa, or "corrupted", vernaculars^[3][4]
• Non-Indo-Aryan (words classified by grammarians asdeśaja, or "indigenous"):Austroasiatic (Munda) languages, as well asDravidian andTibeto-Burman languages^[3]

According to the traditional categorization in Hindi, direct loanwords from Sanskrit are classed astatsam (Hindi:तत्सम "as it is, same as therein") andvides͟hī (Hindi:विदेशी "foreign, non-native") for non-Sanskrit loans,^[5] such as those from Persian or English, respectively contrasting withtadbhava anddeśaja words.

The most common words in Hindustani are tadbhavas.^{[citation needed]}

In Hindustani, the pronounāp (आपآپ) "[one]self", originally used as a third personhonorific plural, denotes respect or formality (politeness) and originates fromPrakrit 𑀅𑀧𑁆𑀧𑀸appā, which derived fromSanskritātman,^[6] which refers to the higher self or level of consciousness.

The pronountū (तूتُو) and its grammatically plural formtum (तुमتم) (also the second person honorific plural) denote informality, familiarity or intimacy and originate respectively fromtuhuṃ andtumma from Prakrit 𑀢𑀼𑀁tuṃ and its variant 𑀢𑀼𑀫𑀁tumaṃ, which derived from Sanskrittvam, nominative singular of युष्मद्yuṣmad (the base of the second person plural pronoun).^[7][8] In modern usage,tū is widely used to display a range of attitudes depending on the context, from extreme informality (impoliteness) to extreme intimacy to outright disrespect and even extreme reverence. Usage oftū in most contexts is considered highly offensive in the formal register except when addressing God as a display of spiritual intimacy. This is very similar to the usage of "thou" in archaic English and many other Indo-European languages showingT–V distinction.

One of the most common words in Hindustani, the copulahai (हैہے) and its plural formhaiṉ (हैंہیں) − present forms ofhonā (होनाہونا, meaning "to be" and originating from Prakrit 𑀪𑁄𑀤𑀺bhodi derived from Sanskritbhavati "to happen")^[9] − rather originate from the following developments:^[10]

• Sanskritasti ("to be"; rootas) evolves into Prakrit 𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺atthi, which further develops intoahi
• Ahi evolves intoOld Hindiahai (अहैاہَے; pronounced /əɦəɪ/, not /əɦɛː/ as in Hindustani)

Shortening ofahai occurred in Hindustani resulting inhai probably to fulfill the symmetry of the other grammatical forms ofhonā.Ahai can be found in some older works of Hindustani literature and its evidence can also be seen in other closely related Indo-Aryan languages such asMarathi (आहेāhe) orSindhi (آهيāhe).

The verbjānā (जानाجانا, "to go"), which originates from Prakrit 𑀚𑀸𑀤𑀺jādi derived from Sanskrityāti ("to move"; rootyā),^[10] however has its perfective form originating from another Prakrit word 𑀕𑀬gaya derived from Sanskritgata, past participle ofgacchati ("to go"; rootgam orgacch),^[10] for example, ingayā (गयाگیا, "went, gone").

The wordājā (आजाآجا) has also been used inNorthern India and Pakistan for "grandfather". It is indeed derived fromarya meaning "sir" in this case.^{[citation needed]} Jain nuns are addressed either asAryika orAjji.

The worddādā (दादाدادا) also has a similar meaning which varies by region. It is used in some regions for "father", in other regions for "older brother", or even for "grandfather" in other regions. This word is an amalgam of two sources:

• Sanskrittāta used to address intimate persons which means either "sir" or "dear".^{[citation needed]}
• Tau meaning "father's older brother" is also derived fromtāta.^{[citation needed]}

The wordbaṛā (बड़ाبڑا "older, bigger, greater") is derived from theSanskritvridhha throughPrakritvaḍḍha.

The term Desi words is used to describe the component of the lexicon in Indo-Aryan languages which is non-Indo-Aryan in origin, but native to other language families of the Indian subcontinent. Examples of Desi words in Hindustani include:^[11][12]loṭā (लोटाلوٹا) "lota (water vessel)",kapās (कपासکپاس) "cotton",kauṛī (कौड़ीکَوڑی) "cowrie (shell money)",ṭhes (ठेसٹھیس) "wound, injury",jhaṉḍā (झंडाجھنڈا) "flag",mukkā (मुक्काمُکا) "fist, punch",lakṛī (लकड़ीلکڑی) "wood",ṭharrā (ठर्राٹھرّا) "tharra (liquor)",čūhā (चूहाچُوہا) "mouse, rat",čūlhā (चूल्हाچُولہا) "stove, oven",pagṛī (पगड़ीپگڑی) "turban",luṉgī (लुंगीلنگی) "lungi (sarong)",ghoṭālā (घोटालाگھوٹالہ) "scam",dāṉḍī (दांडीدانڈی) "salt",jholā (झोलाجھولا) "bag, satchel",ṭakkar (टक्करٹکر) "crash, collision, confrontation",kākā (काकाکاکا) "paternal uncle",uṭpaṭāṉg/ūṭpaṭāṉg (उटपटांग/ऊट-पटांगاُوٹ پٹانگ/اُٹ پٹانگ) "ludicrous",ḍabbā/ḍibbā (डब्बा/डिब्बाڈبہ) "box, container" andjhuggī (झुग्गीجُھگی) "hut"

Nouns:gaṛbaṛ (गड़बड़گڑبڑ) "disorder, disturbance",dhaṛām (धड़ामدھڑام) "thud",bakbak (बक-बकبک بک) "chatter/chitter-chatter",khusur pusar (खुसुर-पुसरکُھسر پُسر) "whisper",jhilmil (झिलमिलجِھلمِل) "shimmer",ṭhakṭhak (ठक-ठकٹھک ٹھک) "knock knock",khaṭpaṭ (खटपटکھٹپٹ) "quarrel, disagreement"
Verbs:khaṭkhaṭānā (खटखटानाکھٹکھٹانا) "to knock",gaḍgaḍānā (गडगडानाگڈگڈانا) "to rumble, to fuss",jagmagānā (जगमगानाجگمگانا) "to shine/glitter",hinhinānā (हिनहिनानाہِنہِنانا) "to neigh",phusphusānā (फुसफुसानाپُھسپُھسانا) "to whisper"
Adjectives and Adverbs:čaṭpaṭ (चट-पटچٹ پٹ) "in a jiffy",tharthar (थर-थरتھر تھر) "with jerky motion (characteristic of shaking or trembling)",čaṭpaṭā (चटपटाچٹپٹا) "dextrous, spicy",čipčipā (चिपचिपाچِپچِپا) "sticky, slimy",čiṛčiṛā (चिड़चिड़ाچِڑچِڑا) "irritable",gaṛbaṛiyā (गड़बड़ियाگڑبڑیا) "chaotic, messy"

Due to the language's status as a lingua franca, Hindustani's vocabulary has a large inventory of loanwords, the largest number of which are adopted fromPunjabi. Punjabi borrowings often bear sound changes from the parentPrakrit and Sanskrit vocabulary which did not occur in Hindustani, particularly the preservation of short vowels in initial syllables and thegemination of the following consonant. A certain amount of vocabulary from other South Asian languages, Persian, Arabic, and English has been loaned indirectly into Hindustani through Punjabi.^[13] Other Indic languages which exist in a state ofdiglossia with Hindustani and are prone to mutual borrowing includeRajasthani, theWestern Pahari languages,Haryanvi,Bhojpuri,Marathi,Nepali, andGujarati. Besides these, common sources of loan words include those manually adopted fromClassical Sanskrit,Classical Persian,Arabic,Chagatai Turkic,Portuguese andEnglish, as well asMandarin Chinese andFrench to a lesser extent.

Many Classical Sanskrit words which were not learned borrowings underwent phonetic alterations. In the vernacular form, these include the merger of Sanskrit श (śa) and ष (ṣa), ण (ṇa) and न (na) as well as ऋ (r̥) and रि (ri). Other common alterations weres͟h [/ʃ/] (शش) becomings [/s/] (सس),v/w [/ʋ/, /w/] (वو) becomingb [/b/] (बب) andy [/j/] (यی) becomingj [/dʒ/] (जج). Short vowels were also sometimes introduced to break up consonant clusters. Such words in Hindi (and other Indo-Aryan languages except Urdu) are calledardhatatsam (Hindi:अर्धतत्सम "semi-tatsam").

Persian words which were not later artificially added were loaned from Classical Persian, the historical variety of the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries, which continued to be used as literary language andlingua franca under thePersianate dynasties of the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Era and is not the same asModern Persian (though theDari Persian ofAfghanistan is a direct descendant).

Persian loanwords in Hindustani are mainly borrowed nouns and adjectives as well as adverbs and conjunctions and some other parts of speech.

From stems:

Present:

Past:

From participles:

Present:

Past:

By adding noun suffix ـِش (-iš):

By forming composite words with Arabic:

A substantial number of Hindustani verbs have been loaned from Punjabi,^[13] however, verb stems originating in less closely related languages are relatively rare. There are a few common verbs formed directly out of Persian stems (or nouns in some cases) listed below.

Some of the most commonly used words from Arabic, all entering the language through Persian, include:^[14]

There are a very small number of Turkic words in Hindustani, numbering as little as 24 according to some sources,^[15] all entering the language through Persian.Other words attributed toTurkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language, are actually words which are common to Hindustani and Turkish but are of non-Turkic origins, mostly Perso-Arabic.^[16] Both languages also share mutual loans from English.Most notably, some honorifics and surnames common in Hindustani are Turkic due to the influence of the ethnically TurkicMughals - these includek͟hānam (ख़ानमخانم) "empress",bājī (बाजीباجی) "younger sister",dīdī (दीदीدیدی) "elder sister" andbegam (बेगमبیگم) "queen". Common surnames includek͟hān (ख़ानخان),čug͟htāʾī (चुग़ताईچغتائی),pās͟hā (पाशाپاشا), andarsalān (अर्सलानارسلان). Common Turkic words used in everyday Hindustani areqaiṉčī/qainčī (क़ैंचीقینچی) "scissors",annā (अन्नाانّا) "governess",tamg͟hā (तमग़ाتمغا) "stamp, medal", andčaqmaq (चक़मक़چقمق) "flint".

There are not many Chinese words that were loaned into Hindustani in spite of geographical proximity.

A small number of Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries. These include the following:

A few French loans exist in Hindustani resulting fromFrench colonial settlements in India. Other French words such ass͟hemīz (शेमीज़شیمِیز) "chemise" andkūpan (कूपनکُوپن) "coupon" have entered the language through English.

Loanwords from English were borrowed through interaction with theBritish East India Company and later British rule. English-language education for the native administrative and richer classes during British rule accelerated the adoption of English vocabulary in Hindustani. Many technical and modern terms were and still are borrowed from English, such asḍākṭar/ḍôkṭar (डाक्टर/डॉक्टरڈاکٹر) "doctor",ṭaiksī (टैक्सीٹَیکسی) "taxi", andkilomīṭar (किलोमीटरکِلومِیٹر) "kilometer".

Some loanwords from English undergo a significant phonetic transformation. This can either be done intentionally, in order to nativize words or to make them sound more or less "English-sounding", or happen naturally. Words often undergo a phonetic change in order to make them easier for native speakers to pronounce while others change due to a lack of English education or incomplete knowledge of English phonetics, where an alternate pronunciation becomes an accepted norm and overtakes the original as the most used pronunciation.

• Hindi Language and Literature, a site aboutHindi's usage, dialects, and history by Dr. Yashwant K. Malaiya, Professor at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
• Hindi Language Resources A comprehensive site on the Hindi language built by Yashwant Malaiya
• Indian Department of Official Language
• Dua, Hans R. (1994a). Hindustani. In Asher (Ed.) (pp. 1554)
• Liberman, Anatoly. (2004). Word Origins ... and How We Know Them: Etymology for Everyone. Delhi: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-561643-X.
• Rai, Amrit. (1984).A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani. Delhi: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-561643-X.
• Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2003). "Perso-Arabic Hybrids in Hindi. The Socio-linguistic and Structural Analysis". Delhi: Manohar.ISBN 81-7304-498-8.
• Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2008). "Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani. Part I: Dictionary". Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka.ISBN 978-83-7188-161-9.
• Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2012). "Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani. Part II: Linguistic Study". Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka.ISBN 978-83-7638-294-4.

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