Prior to thecontemporary conflict that began in 1978, Hindus lived across Afghanistan, notably concentrated in major urban centres such asKabul,Kandahar,Jalalabad,Herat,Mazar-i-Sharif,Kunduz,Ghazni, andKhost.[9][10] Additionally, significant rural population concentrations in villages traditionally existed in eastern portions of the country as documented by British travelersJonas Hanway andGeorge Forster in the 18th century,[a] however, various exoduses and migration to urban regions of the country and eastwards toBritish India occurred throughout the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of occasional violence and conflict.[b][c][d][e]
According to the European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA), the number of Hindus in Afghanistan has steadily declined over the past few decades.[11] During the mid 20th century, in the 1970s, approximately 280,000 Hindus lived in Afghanistan;[f] by 1992, prior to thefall of the government, the population was approximately 88,000,[g] while by the start of 2021 roughly 160 Hindus remained,[h] and by the end of the same year, the population reportedly declined below 50 persons.[11]
Apart from the Hindkowans, theIndo-Aryan native inhabitants of the region, includingPashayi andNuristanis, were also known to be practising what authors consider as a form of Indo-Iranian (Vedic- orHindu-like) religion.[i][12][13][14][15][16]Pashtuns, the majority ethnic group in Afghanistan (officially, no ethnic census ever made), have a component ofVedic ancestors from thePakthas.[17][18]
"The Pakthas, Bhalanases, Vishanins, Alinas, and Sivas were the five frontier tribes. The Pakthas lived in the hills from which the Kruma originates. Zimmer locates them in present-day eastern Afghanistan, identifying them with the modernPakthun."[19]
Gandhara, a region encompassing the South-east of Afghanistan, was influenced byVedism since the post-Vedic Period (c. 1500 – c. 1200 BCE), and later became an important center ofBuddhism.[20][21][22] Later forms ofHinduism were also prevalent in this south-eastern region of the country during theTurk shahis, withKhair Khaneh, aBrahmanical temple being excavated inKabul and a statue ofGardez Ganesha being found inPaktia province.[23] Most of the remains, including marble statuettes, date to the 7th–8th century, during the time of theTurk Shahi.[24][25][26] The statue of Ganesha from Gardez is now attributed to the period ofTurk Shahis in the 7-8th century CE, rather than to their successors theHindu Shahis (9th-10th century) as has also been suggested.[27] The dating is essentially based on stylistic analysis, as the statue displays great iconographical and stylistic similarities with the works of the Buddhist monastery ofFondukistan, which is also dated to the same period.[27] Hinduism further flourished under the rule ofHindu Shahis, but went into sharp decline with the advent ofIslam through theGhaznavids, who defeated the Shahis. Nonetheless, it continued as a significant minority in Afghanistan until the 21st century, when its number of followers fell to a few hundred.[28][29][30]
Most historians maintain that Afghanistan was inhabited by ancientArians followed by theAchaemenid before the arrival ofAlexander the Great and hisGreek army in 330 BC. It became part of theSeleucid Empire after the departure of Alexander three years later. In 305 BCE, the Seleucid Empire lost control of the territory south of theHindu Kush to the Indian Emperor "Sandrocottus" as a result of theSeleucid-Mauryan War.
Alexander took these away from theArians and established settlements of his own, butSeleucus Nicator gave them toSandrocottus (Chandragupta), upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange 500 elephants.[36]
When Chinese travelersFaxian,Song Yun, andXuanzang explored Afghanistan between the 5th and 7th centuries CE, they wrote numeroustravelogues in which reliable information on Afghanistan was stored. They stated thatBuddhism was practiced in different parts between theAmu Darya (Oxus River) in the north and theIndus River.[37] However, they did not mention much about Hinduism although Song Yun did state that theHephthalite rulers did not recognize Buddhism but "preached pseudo gods and killed animals for their meat".[37]
The Zunbil and Kabul Shahis were connected with theIndian subcontinent through Buddhism andZun religions. The Zunbil kings worshipped asun god by the name ofZun, from which they derived their name. André Wink writes that "the cult of Zun was primarilyHindu, not Buddhist or Zoroastrian", nonetheless he still mentions them having parallels with Tibetan Buddhism and Zoroastrianism in their rituals.[38][39]
A 5th-century marbleGanesha found inGardez,Afghanistan, now at Dargah Pir Rattan Nath,Kabul. The inscription says that this "great and beautiful image ofMahāvināyaka" was consecrated by theHindu Shahi King "Khingala".[40]
The Kabul Shahi ruled north of the Zunbil territory, which includedKabulistan andGandahara. The Arabs reached Kabul in 653–654 CE whenAbdur Rahman bin Samara, along with 6,000 Arab Muslims, penetrated the Zunbil territory and made their way to the shrine ofZun inZamindawar, which was believed to be located about five kilometres (three miles) south ofMusa Qala in today'sHelmand Province of Afghanistan. The General of the Arab army "broke of a hand of the idol and plucked out therubies which were its eyes in order to persuade the Marzbān of Sīstān of the god's worthlessness."[41]
Though the early Arab invaders spread the message of Islam, they were not able to rule for long. Hence, many contemporary ethnic groups in Afghanistan, including thePashtuns,Kalash,Pashayi,Nuristanis andHindkowans continued to practice Hinduism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism. The Kabul Shahis decided to build a giant wall around the city to prevent more Arab invasions; this wall still stands today.[42]
Willem Vogelsang in his 2002 book writes: "During the 8th and 9th centuries AD the eastern territories of modern Afghanistan were still in the hands of non-Muslim rulers. The Muslims primarily regarded them as Indians (Hindus), although many of the local rulers and people were apparently of Hunnic or Turkic descent. Yet, the Muslims were right in so far as the non-Muslim population of eastern Afghanistan was, culturally linked to theIndian sub-continent. Most of them were either Hindus or Buddhists. "[43]
In 870 AD theSaffarids from medievalZaranj, located at the Nad-e Ali site of modern-day Iran (not to be confused with the similarly named modern city ofZaranj in Afghanistan),[44] conquered most of Afghanistan, establishing Muslim governors throughout the land. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side before the arrival of theGhaznavids in the 10th century.
"Kábul has acastle celebrated for its strength, accessible only by one road. In it there areMusulmáns, and it has a town, in which are infidels fromHind."[45]
The first confirmed mention of aHindu in Afghanistan appears in the 982 ADḤudūd al-ʿĀlam, where it speaks of a king in "Ninhar" (Nangarhar), who shows a public display of conversion to Islam, even though he had over 30 wives, which are described as "Muslim,Afghan, and Hindu" wives.[46] These names were often used as geographical terms. For example,Hindu (orHindustani) has been historically used as ageographical term to describe someone who was native from the region known asHindustan (Indian subcontinent), andAfghan as someone who was native from a region calledAfghanistan.[47]
WhenSultanMahmud of Ghazni began crossing theIndus River into Hindustan (land of Hindus) in the 10th century, the Ghaznavid Muslims began bringing Hindu slaves to what is now Afghanistan.Martin Ewans in his 2002 book writes:
Even then a Hindu dynasty the Hindu Shahis, heldGandhara and the eastern borders. From the tenth century onwards as Persian language and culture continued to spread into Afghanistan, the focus of power shifted toGhazni, where aTurkic dynasty, who started by ruling the town for the Samanid dynasty ofBokhara, proceeded to create an empire in their own right. The greatest of the Ghaznavids wasMahmud who ruled between 998 and 1030. He expelled the Hindus from Ghandhara, made no fewer than 17 raids into India. He encouraged mass conversions to Islam, in Pakistan as well as in Afghanistan."[49]
Al-Idirisi testifies that until as late as the 12th century, a contract of investiture for every Shahi king was performed at Kabul and that here he was obliged to agree to certain ancient conditions which completed the contract.[50] The Ghaznavid military incursions assured the domination ofSunni Islam in what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan. Various historical sources such as Martin Ewans, E.J. Brill and Farishta have recorded the introduction of Islam to Kabul and other parts of Afghanistan to the conquests of and Mahmud:
The Arabs advanced throughSistan and conquered Sindh early in the eighth century. Elsewhere however their incursions were no more than temporary, and it was not until the rise of the Saffarid dynasty in the ninth century that the frontiers of Islam effectively reached Ghazni and Kabul. Even then a Hindu dynasty theHindushahis, heldGandhara and eastern borders. From the tenth century onwards as Persian language and culture continued to spread into Afghanistan, the focus of power shifted toGhazni, where a Turkish dynasty, who started by ruling the town for the Samanid dynasty of Bokhara, proceeded to create an empire in their own right. The greatest of the Ghaznavids was Muhmad who ruled between 998 and 1030. He expelled the Hindus from Gandhara, made no fewer than seventeen raids into northwestern India and succeeded in conquering territory stretching from the Caspian Sea to Varanasi. Bokhara and Samarkand also came under his rule.[51] He encouraged mass conversions to Islam, of Indians as well as Afghans, looted Hindu temples and carried off immense booty, earning for himself, depending on the viewpoint of the observer, the titles of 'Image-breaker' or 'scourge of India'.[51]
Mahmud used his plundered wealth to finance his armies which included mercenaries. The Indian soldiers, presumably Hindus, who were one of the components of the army with their commander calledsipahsalar-i-Hinduwan lived in their quarter of Ghazna practicing their own religion. Indian soldiers under their commander Suvendhray remained loyal to Mahmud. They were also used against a Turkic rebel, with the command given to a Hindu named Tilak according toBaihaki.[52]
In his war onPeshawar and Waihind saysal-Utbi, Mahmud acquired 500,000 slaves that included children and girls. Men were sold as slaves to even common merchants. The amount of slaves captured in Nardin plummeted their price and male slaves were even bought by common merchants. After raidingThanesar, he acquired 200,000 slaves.[53]
The renowned 14th-century Moroccan Muslim scholarIbn Battuta remarked that theHindu Kush meant the "slayer of Indians", because slaves brought fromIndia who had to pass through there died in large numbers due to the extreme cold and quantity of snow.[54]
The Ghaznavid Empire was further expanded by theGhurids. During theKhalji dynasty, there was also free movement between people from India and Afghanistan. It continued this way until theMughals followed by theSuris and theDurranis.
During the 18th century (1700s), Afghanistan was still home to a significant Hindu population as documented by British travelersJonas Hanway (1712-80) andGeorge Forster (1752-91).[a] As noted by the travelers, the Hindu population had a dispersed geographic distribution across the country, with concentrations existing throughout both rural and urban regions.[a]
During the 19th and 20th centuries, due to waves of violence and conflict, various migration waves eastwards toBritish India, coupled with similar out-migration from rural regions of the country resulted in increased urbanization of the Hindu population of Afghanistan.[b] This was especially noted in eastern regions of the country such asNangarhar Province andKunar Province where significant rural Hindu populations existed at the time.[b] One such incident took place in 1931 when an attack by robbers—two of whom belonged to the Mangal Pashtun tribe—led to the deaths of two robbers and a Sikh, sparking ongoing enmity between the Mangal tribe and the Sikhs. In response, the government relocated Sikhs and Hindus to larger towns and cities for their safety, with most settling in Jalalabad, significantly increasing the city's population.[9]
The main ethnic groups in Afghanistan which practice Hinduism today are thePunjabis andSindhis who are believed to have come along withSikhs as merchants to Afghanistan in the 19th century.[55] Until the collapse of theDemocratic Republic of Afghanistan, there were several thousand Hindus living in the country but today their number is at under 100.[56] Most of the others immigrated to India, theEuropean Union,North America or elsewhere.[4]
Afghan Hindus and Afghan Sikhs often share places of worship. Along with the Sikhs, they are all collectively known asHindki.[citation needed] Linguistic demographics among the Hindu community are diverse and generally follow regional origins: those hailing from Punjab generally speakPunjabi, Sindhis speakSindhi, and the northern and southern dialects ofHindko. The local Hindu community in Afghanistan is mostly based in the city ofKabul. The2002 loya jirga had two seats reserved for Hindus[57] and formerPresidentHamid Karzai's economic advisor, Sham Lal Bhatija was an Afghan Hindu.[58]
During theTaliban 1996 to late 2001 rule, Hindus were forced to wear yellow badges in public to identify themselves as non-Muslims. Hindu women were forced to wearburqas, a measure which was claimed to "protect" them from harassment. This was part of the Taliban's plan to segregate "un-Islamic" and "idolatrous" communities from Islamic ones.[59]
The decree was condemned by the Indian and U.S. governments as a violation of religious freedom. Widespread protests against the Taliban regime broke out inBhopal, India. In the United States,Abraham Foxman, chairman of theAnti-Defamation League, compared the decree to the practices ofNazi Germany, whereJews were required to wear labels identifying them as such.[60] Several influential lawmakers in the United States wore yellow badges with the inscription "I am a Hindu", on the floor of the Senate during the debate as a demonstration of their solidarity with the Hindu minority in Afghanistan.[61][62][63]
Since the 1990s, many Afghan Hindus have fled the country, seeking asylum in countries such asIndia,Germany and United States.[64]
In July 2013, the Afghan parliament refused to reserve seats for the minority group as a bill reserving seats for the mentioned was voted against. The bill by the then presidentHamid Karzai, had tribal people and "women" as "vulnerable groups" who got reservation, but not religious minorities as per the religious equality article in the constitution.[65]
Note: Historical and contemporary estimations frequently merge Afghan Hindu and Afghan Sikh populations. According to historian Inderjeet Singh, the population ratio between Afghan Hindus and Sikhs is estimated to be 40:60.[75] All sourced estimates in table above with merged population figures are based upon this population ratio.
As both populations are frequently merged in historic and contemporary estimations, the population ratio between Afghan Sikhs and Hindus is estimated to be 60:40 according to historian Inderjeet Singh.[k]
With a wide range of population approximations in the absence of official census data and with much of the community concentrated in the provinces of Kabul, Nangarhar, Ghazni, and Kandahar, the Afghan Hindu population was estimated to be between 80,000 and 280,000 in the 1970s,[k][l][m][67] as per estimates by historian Inderjeet Singh, Ehsan Shayegan with the Porsesh Research and Studies Organisation and Rawail Singh, an Afghan Sikh civil rights activist.
Annet Mahendru – American actress born in Kabul to a Punjabi Indian father, Ghanshan "Ken" Mahendru, whose family had emigrated to Afghanistan from Delhi and a Russian mother, Olga.[114][115][116]
Celina Jaitley – Indian Bollywood actress born to an Indian Punjabi father in the Army and a Christian mother, Meeta. Her mother was a third-generation Afghan-Indian through her Afghan Hindu great-grandmother.[117]
^abc"In Chapter 7 of the book under review, the author has made reference to accounts of Jonas Hanwey (1712-80), George Forster(1752-91) which show that Hindus and Sikhs were well settled in Afghanistan not only in the main cities but even in small towns and villages."[10]
^abc"Until 1931 Sikhs and Hindus were settled throughout the villages and small towns ofNangarhar and in the neighbouringKunar province. That year during an attack by the robbers, two robbers (belonging toMangal Pashtun tribe) and a Sikh were killed. This meant an ongoing enmity between the Mangal tribe and the Sikhs. To safeguard, the government relocated the Sikhs and Hindus to the bigger towns and cities. Most of them came to Jalalabad which significantly increased their population in the city."[9]
^"The first major exodus of Afghan Hindus (& Sikhs) was during the reign ofAmir Abdur Rahman Khan (1880 – 1901). Amir suppressed numerous rebellions including those ofHazaras (a predominatelyShia community who are considered as descendants ofMongols due to their facial features) community. Dr Khurana informs that this led to many fundamentalist elements in Afghan society to harass Hindus & Sikhs. Many left the country and settled in India. The Afghan Sikh community inPatiala inPunjab came to India during this time."[9]
^"Mr. Umesh Sharma, 72 years old fromBengaluru informs that his great grandfather Pandit Guru Dass moved out ofHerat in 1888 when the local Muslims boycotted Hindu (& Sikh) shops. The family came toGujranwala then toLahore and finally settled inMeerut in 1943. Mr. Sharma adds that 90% of Hindus & Sikhs left Herat, out of which 30% settled in other parts of Afghanistan and rest migrated toBritish controlled India."[9]
^"Amir Amanullah Khan’s (reign 1919 – 29) modernization plan which included education for women, wearing modern clothing etc. led to a strong resentment and there was a rebellion inKhost province in 1924 which was quelled in January 1925. The Amir came from long tour of Europe in 1928 and announced that he was banning hijab & burka. Although there were other factors, but the Amir was declared as ‘kuffar’(infidel) and large number of tribes in Eastern (& Kandahar) Afghanistan rebelled against the government. This Afghan Civil started in November 1928 and ended in October 1929. This civil war affected Eastern Afghanistan including Kabul and Kandahar which traditionally had relatively high Hindu and Sikh population who were again at the receiving end of the fundamentalist element. This again led to some migration of Afghan Hindus & Sikhs to British India."[9]
^Combined Hindu and Sikh population cited at 700,000.[11] Hindu population based on population ratio estimates between Afghan Hindus and Sikhs being 40:60, as cited per historian Inderjeet Singh.[4]
^Combined Hindu and Sikh population cited at 220,000.[11] Hindu population based on population ratio estimates between Afghan Hindus and Sikhs being 40:60, as cited per historian Inderjeet Singh.[4]
^Combined Hindu and Sikh population cited at 400.[11] Hindu population based on population ratio estimates between Afghan Hindus and Sikhs being 40:60, as cited per historian Inderjeet Singh.[4]
^As both populations are frequently merged in historic and contemporary estimations, the population ratio between Afghan Sikhs and Hindus is estimated to be 60:40 according to historian Inderjeet Singh.[4] The 1980 estimate is derived from this population ratio, using the average of the estimated population range of 80,000 to 280,000 from the era, taken from the preceding source, along with the three following sources.[66][67][68]
^ab“According to Singh, there were at least 2 lakh Sikhs and Hindus (in a 60:40 ratio) in Afghanistan until the 1970s.”[4]
^“In the 70s, there were around 700,000 Hindus and Sikhs, and now they are estimated to be less than 7,000,” Shayegan says.[66]
^“An investigation by TOLOnews reveals that the Sikh and Hindu population number was 220,000 in the 1980's.”[68]
^ab"Afghan Sikhs, Hindus meet Taliban officials, are assured of safety".The Indian Express. Archived fromthe original on 27 June 2022 – via MSN.Speaking to The Indian Express over the phone from Kabul, Gurnam Singh, president of the Gurdwara Dashmesh Pita Sri Guru Gobind Singh ji Singh Sabha Karte Parwan, said around 300 people — 280 Sikhs and 30-40 Hindus — have taken shelter at the gurdwara since the Taliban started taking over provinces of Afghanistan.
^Ali, Tariq (2003).The clash of fundamentalisms: crusades, jihads and modernity. Verso. p. 20.ISBN978-1-85984-457-1. Retrieved20 April 2008.The friends from Peshawar would speak of Hindu and Sikh Pashtuns who had migrated to India. In the tribal areas – the no man's land between Afghanistan and Pakistan – quite a few Hindus stayed on and were protected by the tribal codes. The same was true in Afghanistan itself (till the mujahidin and the Taliban arrived).
^Minahan, James B. (10 February 2014).Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 217.ISBN9781610690188.Historically, north and east Afghanistan was considered part of the Indian cultural and religious sphere. Early accounts of the region mention the Pashayi as living in a region producing rice and sugarcane, with many wooded areas. Many of the people of the region were Buddhists, though small groups of Hindus and others with tribal religions were noted.
^Khanam, R. (2005).Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 631.ISBN9788182200654.
^"The Pashayi of Afghanistan". Bethany World Prayer Center. 1997.Archived from the original on 30 March 2007. Retrieved11 April 2019.Before their conversion to Islam, the Pashayi followed a religion that was probably a corrupt form of Hinduism and Buddhism. Today, they are Sunni (orthodox) Muslims of the Hanafite sect.
^India: from Indus Valley civilisation to Mauryas By Gyan Swarup Gupta Published by Concept Publishing Company, 1999ISBN81-7022-763-1,ISBN978-81-7022-763-2, page 199.
^Comrie, Bernard (1990).The World's Major Languages. Oxford University Press. p. 549.
^Ancient Pakistan: Volume 3, University of Peshawar. Dept. of Archaeology - 1967, Page 23
^*Schmidt, Karl J. (1995).An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History, p.120: "In addition to being a center of religion for Buddhists, as well as Hindus, Taxila was a thriving center for art, culture, and learning."
Srinivasan, Doris Meth (2008). "Hindu Deities in Gandharan art," inGandhara, The Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan: Legends, Monasteries, and Paradise, pp.130-143: "Gandhara was not cut off from the heartland of early Hinduism in the Gangetic Valley. The two regions shared cultural and political connections and trade relations and this facilitated the adoption and exchange of religious ideas. [...] It is during the Kushan Era that flowering of religious imagery occurred. [...] Gandhara often introduced its own idiosyncratic expression upon the Buddhist and Hindu imagery it had initially come in contact with."
Blurton, T. Richard (1993).Hindu Art, Harvard University Press: "The earliest figures of Shiva which show him in purely human form come from the area of ancient Gandhara" (p.84) and "Coins from Gandhara of the first century BC show Lakshmi [...] four-armed, on a lotus." (p.176)
^ab"It is not therefore possible to attribute these pieces to the Hindu Shahi period. They should be attributed to the Shahi period before the Hindu Shahis originated by the Brahman wazir Kallar, that is, the Turki Shahis." p.405 " According to the above sources, Brahmanism and Buddhism are properly supposed to have coexisted especially during the 7th-8th century A.D. just before the Muslim hegemony. The marble sculptures from eastern Afghanistan should not be attributed to the period of the Hindu Shahis but to that of the Turki Shahis." p.407 inKuwayama, Shoshin (1976)."The Turki Śāhis and Relevant Brahmanical Sculptures in Afghanistan".East and West.26 (3/4):375–407.ISSN0012-8376.JSTOR29756318.Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved2 April 2021.
^"Contained within a clay urn were a gold bracteate with the portrait of a ruler, three early drachms of the Turk-Shahis (Type 236, one of which is countermarked), and a countermarked drachm of the Sasanian kingKhusro II dating from year 37 of his reign (= 626/7). The two countermarks on Khusro 's drachm prove that the urn could only have been deposited after 689"ALRAM, MICHAEL (2014)."From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush"(PDF).The Numismatic Chronicle.174:282–285.ISSN0078-2696.JSTOR44710198.
^Minahan, James B. (10 February 2014).Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 217.ISBN9781610690188.Historically, north and east Afghanistan was considered part of the Indian cultural and religious sphere. Early accounts of the region mention the Pashayi as living in a region producing rice and sugarcane, with many wooded areas. Many of the people of the region were Buddhists, though small groups of Hindus and others with tribal religions were noted.
^Khanam, R. (2005).Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 631.ISBN9788182200654.
^"The Pashayi of Afghanistan". Bethany World Prayer Center. 1997.Archived from the original on 30 March 2007. Retrieved11 April 2019.Before their conversion to Islam, the Pashayi followed a religion that was probably a corrupt form of Hinduism and Buddhism. Today, they are Sunni (orthodox) Muslims of the Hanafite sect.
^André Wink,Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Brill 1990. p 118
^"Parallels have been noted with pre-Buddhist religious and monarchy practices in Tibet and had Zoroastrianism in its ritual". Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2, page 118. By André Wink
^For photograph of statue and details of inscription, see: Dhavalikar, M. K., "Gaņeśa: Myth and Reality", in:Brown 1991, pp. 50, 63.
^André Wink,Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Brill 1990. p 120
^"The Kabul Times Annual". Kabul Times Pub. Agency, Information, Culture Ministry., 1970. p. 220.
^by Willem Vogelsang, Edition: illustrated Published by Wiley-Blackwell, 2002 Page 188
^Al-Idrisi, p. 67, Maqbul Ahmed;Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, 1991, p. 127, Andre Wink.
^abAfghanistan: a new history by Martin Ewans Edition: 2, illustrated Published by Routledge, 2002 Page 15ISBN0-415-29826-1,ISBN978-0-415-29826-1. "He encouraged mass conversions to Islam, of Indians as well as Afghans, looted Hindu temples and carried off immense booty, earning for himself, depending on the viewpoint of the observer, the titles of 'Image-breaker' or 'Scourge of India'."
^Christoph Witzenrath (2016).Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200-1860. Routledge. p. 45.ISBN978-1-317-14002-3.Ibn Battuta, the renowned Moroccan fourteenth century world traveller remarked in a spine-chilling passage that Hindu Kush means slayer of the Indians, because the slave boys and girls who are brought from India die there in large numbers as a result of the extreme cold and the quantity of snow.
^de Croisset, Phoebe (16 December 2016)."Multiple Identities".SBJCT Journal.Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved5 March 2021.I am an Indian-Russian-Afghan-American
^"Annet Mahendru Talk Dead to Me Interview".Talk Dead To Me Skybound. 8 December 2020. Event occurs at 05:46. YouTube.Archived from the original on 21 December 2021. Retrieved5 March 2021.My dad was an Afghan Hindu
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