Higher education inCanada includes provincial, territorial, Indigenous and military higher education systems. The ideal objective of Canadian higher education is to offer every Canadian the opportunity to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to realize their utmost potential. It aspires to cultivate a world-class workforce, enhance the employment rate of Canadians, and safeguard Canada's enduring prosperity. Higher education programs are intricately designed with the perspective of the learner in focus, striving to mitigate risks and assure definite outcomes.[2]
According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[3][4] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[5]
In Canada, the constitutional responsibility forhigher education primarily rests with theprovinces of Canada per theConstitution Act, 1867.[6] The jurisdictional issue of the decision was contentious from its inception.[7] As a result of this constitutional arrangement, a distinctive system of education, including higher education, has evolved in each province and territory. The federal government's direct involvement in higher education is currently limited to theCanadian Military Colleges and funding the education ofIndigenous peoples.
The higher education systems in Canada's ten provinces include their historical development, organization (e.g., structure, governance, and funding), and goals (e.g., participation, access, and mobility). Each of the three territories in Canada (i.e.,Nunavut,Northwest Territories, andYukon) have separate higher education systems that reflect territorial history, organization, and goals in the context of geographical challenges.
Higher education forIndigenous peoples in Canada can be considered on a spectrum ranging from Indigenous to general programs and institutions. At one end, some institutions are specifically intended for Indigenous people, located in predominantly Indigenous communities, controlled byFirst Nations band governments or dedicated non-profit boards, and/or accredited by Indigenous bodies (often international in scope). At the other end are the mainstream provincial or territorial systems with general intake. In the middle could be considered focussed programs chartered by provincial or territorial governments or affiliated to their mainstream institutions. (The spectrum does not consider programs outside Canada, whether Indigenous-focussed or not.) The peculiar institutional situation of Indigenous education is the result of a quirk in jurisdictional division between the provinces and federal government as well as a negative relationship between Indigenous people and mainstream education due to the historical legacy ofassimilationist policies pursued by Canadian authorities. Many Indigenous programs and institutions are growing much more rapidly than mainstream ones; nonetheless, most have lengthy institutional histories.
An example of an independent Indigenous institution isUniversity nuhelot’įne thaiyots’į nistameyimâkanak Blue Quills, which is not provincially chartered, unlike all otheruniversities in Alberta but instead incorporated by federal statute.[8] The institution was founded as anIndian residential school in the 1930s before being occupied by a protest movement in 1970 and then transferred to Indigenous control in 1971.[9] It was declared a university on September 1, 2015.
An example of an Indigenous institution federated with a larger university isFirst Nations University of Canada, which is part of theUniversity of Regina.
An example of an Indigenous accreditation body is the Indigenous Advanced Education and Skills Council.[10]
Higher education inAlberta trains students in variousacademic andvocational specializations. Generally, youth attendschool from kindergarten until grade twelve, at which time they have the option to continue intopost secondary study. Students are required to meet the individual entrance requirements for programs offered at the institution of their choice.[11] Once accepted, students are allowed greater educational opportunities through the province extensively developedarticulation system. TheAlberta Council on Admissions and Transfer (ACAT) enables students transfer between programs at any of the twenty public post secondary institutions, eight private colleges, and other Alberta-based not for profit institutions.[12][13] To ensure a continued high standard forcredentials awarded by post secondary facilities, the Alberta Ministry of Advanced Education established the Campus Alberta Quality Council with membership in the International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education.[14]
Post-secondary education in Alberta is regulated by theMinistry of Advanced Education.[15] There are eight public universities inAlberta, ten public colleges, three polytechnical institutes (which grant degrees), and seven private colleges (all of which grant degrees). Most private universities refer to themselves as "university colleges", and they grant equivalent degrees.[15] One university,University nuhelotʼįne thaiyotsʼį nistameyimâkanak Blue Quills, is governed not under provincial legislation, but controlled directly by a consortium of seven First Nations band governments.
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The provincial government administers a higher education system that includes twenty-five publicly funded institutions, fourteen private institutions, and numerous private career training institutions or career colleges. Public institutions include eleven universities, eleven colleges, and three institutes.
Much like the other regions in Canada, the educational system in British Columbia remained, for the most part, stagnant from the 1960s through the 1990s.[16] During this period, education was divided into two main groups, the college and institute sector and the university sector.[16] However, only the university sector was able to issue a formal degree.[16] In an effort to match the growth of technology, to expand the economy, and to raise attendance rates, this system was revised in 1991 when the New Democratic Party took over control of the central government.[16] One main revision to the education system was a focus on vocationalism, which allowed education to be centred around industry specific skills rather than a generic curriculum.[16] Since some vocational schools already existed, the New Democratic Party found it most logical to join the existing vocational schools and colleges into singular institutions along with enacting new programs.[17] By 1995 five new universities were created offering a mix of vocational programs and generic degree programs.[17] This not only increased the number of attendance spots therefore making a higher education more accessible, but it also made education more practical and applicable to careers after university.[17] In addition, Vocational schools were also used to retrain current members of the workforce so they could adapt with technological changes and advancements.[18] Now that more students had access to specialized vocational programs they were more adept to enter specific industries and could therefore enlarge economic growth and technological innovation.[18]
Post-secondary education in BC is regulated by the Ministry of Post-Secondary Education and Future Skills. There are elevenpublic universities and fiveprivate universities inBritish Columbia. University enrolment in British Columbia ranges fromQuest University Canada with 700 students[19] to the University of British Columbia with 45,484 students.
The biggest provider of online and distance education in BC isThompson Rivers University, Open Learning. With over 400 individual courses and more than 57 programs available for completion by distance and online learning, students can take a variety of programs such as adult secondary school completion; certificates and diplomas, including advanced and post-baccalaureate; associate degrees; and bachelor's degrees. Considering distance students, Thompson Rivers University's enrolment is 22,036 (8964 of which is distance).
A major public review of higher education in Manitoba, submitted in 1973 under the title of the Task Force on Postsecondary Education, more commonly known as the Oliver Commission, recommended closer articulation between Manitoba's universities and community colleges.[20] The system remains a binary one, however, with few university transfer programs or college courses which can be applied towards a university degree.[21] TheRoblin CommissionArchived 2016-03-03 at theWayback Machine of 1993 and subsequent declining allocations of the public purse have made it clear that post-secondary institutions will have to find their own private sources of funding to make up shortfalls in general operating budgets.[21]
There are five public universities and one private university in Manitoba, which are under the responsibility of theMinistry of Advanced Education and Literacy.[22] Three of the public universities—theUniversity of Manitoba, which is the oldest university in western Canada, theUniversity of Winnipeg, andUniversité de Saint-Boniface—are inWinnipeg, the capital and largest city in the province.Université de Saint-Boniface, established in 1818, is the oldest post-secondary institute in the province and is the only French-language university in western Canada.Brandon University is located in the western Manitoba city ofBrandon.Canadian Mennonite University is a privateAnabaptist university in Winnipeg.
The province also has three university colleges:Booth University College, formed in 1982 in Winnipeg,Providence University College inOtterburne, Manitoba, and theUniversity College of the North, which serves the communities ofThe Pas andThompson. Smaller satellite campuses serve 12 other smaller centres, 9 of which are on First Nations land.
University enrolment in Manitoba ranges from Booth University College with several hundred students to theUniversity of Manitoba with 26,800 students.
The higher education system inNew Brunswick includes the governing Ministry of Postsecondary Education Training and Labour, related agencies, boards, or commissions, public or private chartered universities, universities recognized under the degree granting act, public colleges, and other institutions such as private career colleges. Higher education has a rich history in New Brunswick, including the first English-speaking University in Canada,University of New Brunswick, and the first university in the British Empire to have awarded a baccalaureate to a woman (Grace Annie Lockhart, B.Sc., 1875),Mount Allison University. English speaking New Brunswickers in Canada's only bilingual province are falling behind according to Statistics Canada.[23]
There are eight chartered universities in New Brunswick; four public universities,[24] governed by the Ministry of Post-Secondary Education, Training and Labour,[25] and four private institutions including an online university,Yorkville University. New Brunswick holds the distinctions of having the first English-language university in Canada and the first public university in North America, (theUniversity of New Brunswick);[26] and also the first university in theBritish Empire to award a bachelor's degree to a woman, (Mount Allison University) in 1875.[27]St. Thomas University andUniversity of New Brunswick have campuses in the province's capital ofFredericton and UNB also maintains a campus inSaint John. Established in 1785, the University of New Brunswick is the oldest public in the province, and theUniversité de Moncton is the newest, formed in 1963, though dating back to 1864 through one of its three predecessor institutions. Public university enrolment ranges from Mount Allison University with 2,486 students to the University of New Brunswick with 10,587 students. Of the three private universities,Crandall University has an enrolment 800.[28] Another private university,St. Stephen's University is located in St. Stephen, NB.Kingswood University is an evangelical Christian University associated with theWesleyan Church, located in Sussex, New Brunswick, Canada.
Newfoundland and Labrador has had the same growing pains as other provinces in developing its own form of education and now boasts a very strong, although relatively small, system. The direction of Newfoundland and Labrador's policy has evolved rapidly since the late 1990s, with increased funding, participation rates, accessibility and transferability. Many of the directives the government has been acting upon in the past 3 years have been a result of recommendations that stemmed from a 2005 white paper:Foundation for Success: White Paper on Public Post-Secondary Education[29]
The Degree Granting Act ofNewfoundland and Labrador regulates degree-granting universities in the province.[30] The only university in Newfoundland and Labrador,[24]Memorial University of Newfoundland, has campuses in three cities, inSt. John's, the capital of Newfoundland and Labrador, on the west coast of the province, in Corner Brook, and in Harlow, U.K. With 19,429 enrolled students, it is the second largest university inAtlantic Canada.[31]
The only post-secondary institution in the NWT isAurora College. The former Arctic College was split into Aurora College andNunavut Arctic College whenNunavut Territory was created in 1999. Aurora College has campuses inInuvik,Fort Smith andYellowknife. It has learning centres in many other communities in the NWT. The territorial Department of Education, Culture and Employment is the government agency responsible for post-secondary education in theNorthwest Territories. There are two career colleges located in the NWT: theAcademy of Learning in Yellowknife, which provides business information technology courses,[32] and Great Slave Helicopters Flight Training Centre, which suppliesGlobal Positioning System training for helicopter pilot education.[33]
The governing body for higher education inNova Scotia is the Department of Education withKaren Casey as Minister of Education.[34] Nova Scotia has a population of less than 1 million people[35] who are served by 11 public universities and one private chartered university authorized to grant degrees,[36] theNova Scotia Community College that offers programs at 13 campuses,[37] and 6 Community Learning Centres.[38]
There are 10universities in Nova Scotia.[39] Six of these –Atlantic School of Theology,Dalhousie University,Mount Saint Vincent University, theNSCAD University,Saint Mary's University, and theUniversity of King's College – are located inHalifax, Nova Scotia, the provincial capital and largest city inAtlantic Canada. The oldest university in the province is theUniversity of King's College, established in 1789, while the newest isCape Breton University, established in 1974. University student enrolment in Nova Scotia ranges from 150 students at Atlantic School of Theology to more than 18,000 atDalhousie University.
Several universities in Nova Scotia have religious connections. The University of King's College, founded inWindsor, was the first college to obtain university powers inBritish North America, at a time whenUpper Canada had no government of its own. It has always remained under the control of theChurch of England. Dalhousie University, originally known as Dalhousie College, was established in Halifax in 1818 with the help of thePresbyterian Church, andAcadia University was founded byBaptists.Catholics formed Saint Mary's University, Mount Saint Vincent University, andSaint Francis Xavier University.[40]
Université Sainte-Anne, the tenth university, is located inPointe-de-l'Église and instructs its academic courses in French.
Created in 1999, the Territory ofNunavut is located in theCanadian Arctic. Nunavut has developed some creative solutions to the delivery of post-secondary education considering challenges that include a huge geographic region, a sparse and isolated populace, and four official languages.[41][42] To address these challenges,Nunavut Arctic College delivers customized learning programs via Community Learning Centres in twenty-four of the twenty-six communities in Nunavut.[43] Programs are developed to address the needs of individual communities, with respect to literacy, adult education, certificates, and professional development for major regional community stakeholders, such as government, employers and non-profit organizations.[44] To assist Northern residents in accessing highly skilled training, Nunavut Arctic College has partnered withMcGill University, theUniversity of Victoria andDalhousie University to offer bachelor's degrees inEducation,Nursing andLaw, respectively.[45] Nunavut Arctic College is an active member of theAlberta Council on Admissions and Transfer, and has developed formal transfer arrangements with many institutions in the Province of Alberta andAurora College in the Northwest Territories.[46]
The higher education system in Ontario includes the governingMinistry of Training, Colleges, and Universities, advisory bodies,public universities, private degree-granting institutions, public colleges, private career colleges, and associations.[47][48] In Ontario there aretwenty-two public universities,twenty-four public colleges, and seventeen privately funded institutions with degree granting authority. Governance within Ontario universities generally follows a bicameral approach with separation of authority between a board and a senate.[49] There are eightassociations that provide representation for faculty, staff, institutions, and students within the Ontario higher education system. Thepublic funding of higher education in Ontario primarily relies on cooperation between thegovernment of Canada and thegovernment of Ontario. Public funding of higher education involves direct public funding of institutions forinstruction,investment, andresearch combined with funding of students.[50]
There are 24 publicly funded universities in the Canadian province ofOntario that arepost-secondary education institutions with degree-granting authority.[51] Each of these institutions were either established through anAct of the Legislative Assembly or through aroyal charter.[52] With the exception ofRoyal Military College of Canada, students apply to public universities in Ontario through theOntario Universities' Application Centre.
Ontario also has 24 publicly fundedcolleges, most referred to as Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology and three as Institutes of Technology and Advanced Learning, all of which are commonly referred to as colleges.[53] All of the colleges offered 901 bachelor's degree programmes, as of 2023[update]–24.[54]
TheUniversity of Toronto was established in 1827, making it the oldest university in Ontario. The newest university in Ontario is theUniversité de l'Ontario français, incorporated by legislation in 2018 but accepting its first cohort of full-time students in 2021. The next newest,Algoma University, was established in 2008 after gaining independence fromLaurentian University. The largest university in terms of enrolment is the University of Toronto, which has 84,000 students across campuses in three locations.[55]York University inToronto has over 50,000 students, the second largest university in terms of enrolment.[56] TheU15 Group of Canadian Research Universities is headquartered in Ottawa.
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Higher education inPrince Edward Island falls under the jurisdiction of the Higher Education and Corporate Services Branch within the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development.[57] The province has one university, theUniversity of Prince Edward Island authorized to grant degrees and one community college,Holland College, that operates centres across the province including: the Culinary Institute of Canada, the Justice Institute of Canada, the Marine Centre, the Aerospace Centre, the Atlantic Tourism and Hospitality Institute and the Prince Edward Island Institute of Adult and Community Education.[58]
There is one university in Prince Edward Island that is authorized to grant degrees.[24] Higher education in the province falls under the jurisdiction of the Higher Education and Corporate Services Branch within the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development.[59] The only university in the province, theUniversity of Prince Edward Island, is in the province's capital ofCharlottetown. The institution resulted from an amalgamation ofPrince of Wales College, a formeruniversity college founded in 1834, andSaint Dunstan's University, founded in 1855.[60] UPEI hosts theAtlantic Veterinary College, funded by the four Atlantic provincial governments.[61]
The higher education system inQuebec is unique when compared to the other Canadian provinces and territories. Students complete theirsecondary studies in their 5th year, which is the equivalent of grade 11. Post-secondary studies start within a mandatory pre-university college system. A publicly funded college is called Collège d’enseignement général et professionnel (CEGEP). Private colleges exist but in much fewer numbers. In college, students keen onacademic or highly skilled professions would take theuniversity preparation program, while students interested in askilled trade would take specialized programs at this level to prepare them for the workforce. Because College includes two years of academic study they essentially eliminate thefreshman year of university. Programs in Quebec universities are more specialized, but students are required to complete only ninety credits for aBachelors degree.[62] Students from outside the province are required make up the first year either through a college, CEGEP, or at their chosen university. Although French is the official language at the provincial level, all students can access post-secondary education in both French and English.[63]
There are 19 universities in the largely French-speaking province ofQuebec, 10 of which form the Université du Québec network.
In Québec, universities are independent from government and autonomous in managing their affairs. By means of legislation or constitutional charters, lawmakers have granted each university the freedom to define its own curriculum and develop its own teaching and research programs. The university has full responsibility for setting admission standards and enrolment requirements, awarding degrees and recruiting its personnel.
Of the nineteen universities, three areanglophone:Concordia University,McGill University andBishop's University. One, theRoyal Military College Saint-Jean, is bilingual (between French and English). The rest arefrancophone: five of them –École de technologie supérieure,Polytechnique Montréal,HEC Montréal,Université de Montréal andUniversité du Québec à Montréal – are located inMontreal, the most populated city in Quebec, and four of them –École nationale d'administration publique,Institut national de la recherche scientifique,TÉLUQ andUniversité Laval – are based inQuebec City, the province's capital. The Institut national de la recherche scientifique andÉcole nationale d'administration publique do not offer undergraduate level programs, while TÉLUQ is a distance learning university.
The oldest university in the province isUniversité Laval, established in 1663 but became a university only in 1852. The most recent institutions are:Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (1983),Concordia University (1974), École de technologie supérieure (1974),TÉLUQ (1972, merged with UQÀM in 2005, split in 2012). University enrolment in the province of Quebec ranges from theInstitut national de la recherche scientifique with 480 students to theUniversité de Montréal with 55,540 students (but this figure actually includes HEC and Polytechnique, which are legally distinct universities).
The post-secondary sector includes two public universities, Indigenous-controlled institutions that are affiliated to either one of the public universities, 1 polytechnic, four federated colleges, career colleges, eight regional colleges, andCampus Saskatchewan govern by the Ministry of Advanced Education, part of the provincial government of Saskatchewan.[64] Campus Saskatchewan, established in 2002 as a partnership with various post-secondary institutions to work together to use technology-enhanced learning to increase opportunities for the people in Saskatchewan to access high quality education and training at times and in places that best meet their needs.[65] According to the 2014–15 budget report,[66] The Ministry of Advanced Education received $817.8 million, an increase of $24 million or 3.7 per cent over last year to support operational increases and several key investments at post-secondary institutions. Employment and Labour oversees a number of[67] to assist current and potential students such as the Graduate Retention Program (GRP). In addition, the ministry also offers non-payable funding through scholarships, grants and bursaries to eligible students.[68] The Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology (SIAST) received authorization to its first degree, a Bachelor of Psychiatric Nursing, the first of its kind in the province in July 2013. The following year on November, SIAST was renamed Saskatchewan Polytechnic (SaskPolyTech).[69]
There are two universities in Saskatchewan with degree-granting authority.[24] TheGovernment of Saskatchewan must establish statutes individually to degree-granting universities; these statutes outline the authority of each institution, their regulations, and bylaws.[70] TheUniversity of Regina is basedRegina, the province's capital, and theUniversity of Saskatchewan is inSaskatoon, the most populous city in Saskatchewan. The University of Saskatchewan is the oldest university in the province, founded in 1907. The University of Saskatchewan is also the largest university in Saskatchewan with 18,620 students, and the First Nations University of Canada (FNUC) is the smallest with 840 students. TheFirst Nations University of Canada is another post-secondary institution that is federated with the University of Regina, and caters to the needs ofFirst Nations students. It was originally called the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations, and once formed, it entered into a federated agreement with the University of Regina to create the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College (SIFC). This Agreement allowed FNUC to become an independently administered university-college that served First Nations students.[71] The First Nations University of Canada is the only university in the province that does not offer graduate-level programs.
Yukon's system of Higher education is shaped by theterritory's small population (30,375 people as of May 2006)[72] in a relatively large geographic area. The history of higher education in fact went hand in hand with the establishment of a representative territorial government in 1979.[73] The only post-secondary institute in Yukon,Yukon University, issues certificate, diploma, and degree programs to all high school leavers and older adults. It is the only university in northern Canada, and was previously Yukon College until 19 May 2020 when it became a university.[74] The university provides Adult Basic Education/literacy programs as well.[75]
Yukon University (formerly Yukon College) is apublic university in Yukon. Although the institution also operates 12 campuses throughout the territory, its main campus is based inWhitehorse. Initially built as a Canadian college, Yukoners had proposed the Yukon college become a university in some form or other since 2004. In December, 2019, theYukon Legislative Assembly passed a bill that would transform Yukon College into Yukon University. The university officially opened in May 2020, makingYukon University the only public university innorthern Canada.
There are numerous groups that are relevant to the structure of higher education in Canada. These include those that supportteachers, staff,students, institutions, research, and related groups involved in the delivery of higher education in the Canadian provinces and territories.
Canada does not have an accreditation system to assess the quality of post-secondary schools,[76] such as the United States' network ofnational andregional accreditation organizations.[77] Membership inUniversities Canada and government charters or legislation are substitutes[78] but provinces/territories usually do not evaluate universities as rigorously as American accreditation organizations, and graduates of institutions that are not Universities Canada members sometimes find that universities in other provinces do not recognize their degrees.[76]
Each Canadian university is autonomous in academic matters including policies and procedures ofquality assurance of its programs, instructors and procedures. Membership in Universities Canada and the university's government charter are seen as serving in lieu of institutional accreditation, both in Canada and abroad. Eight Canadian provinces have established bodies to provide a second level of quality assurance at universities. Saskatchewan, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Yukon do not have provincial/territorial quality assurance agencies.
There are several unofficial rankings published on an annual basis by media such asMaclean's. Several other magazines like Times Magazine also regularly publish rankings.
Athabasca University in 2006 became one of the first Canadian universities to receive American accreditation, when theMiddle States Commission on Higher Education approved its application.[78] After theSimon Fraser Clan became the first non-American team to join the AmericanNational Collegiate Athletic Association—which requires regional accreditation—Simon Fraser University applied to theNorthwest Commission on Colleges and Universities (NWCCU) in 2008 and was granted accredited status effective as of 2015[update]. According to Simon Fraser, the university has accreditation with NWCCU because Canada does not have a comparable system. US accreditation will, the university stated, "simplify our relationships with US institutions, including government, foundations and collegiate sports associations", and "enhance the value of an SFU degree for alumni abroad and for international students returning home".[77][79] Non-Universities Canada memberCapilano University[76] had NWCCU accreditation from 2013 to 2023.[80]Thompson Rivers University (TRU) in 2013 announced its intention to apply,[78] receiving accreditation from NWCCU in 2018. TRU is also a Universities Canada member.[81]
There are a number of journals and publications regarding higher education in Canada. The majority are published by associations of faculty, staff, or students.
A 2011 study found that Canadian university professors were left leaning but were not "hugely different in this respect from the Canadian university-educated population." There was considerable variation in political views, which suggests "that contemporary characterizations of the North American professoriate as left- or right-leaning tend to be overdrawn". Disadvantaged status andsocialization in the field were important in forming these views but self-selection effects were not excluded.[82]
Canada ranks first amongOECD nations in the number of college and university graduates. In 2016, Statistics Canada found that 54.0% of Canadians (aged 25–64) were college or university graduates.[83] However, a 2016 labour market assessment by theParliamentary Budget Officer reported that theunderemployment rate for university undergraduates under the age of 35 worsened from 1991 to 2015. The equivalent rate forcollege graduates was similar until 2006. Since then it has fallen.[84] Canada does not prioritize or incentivize academic institutions to create streamlined, job-ready programs, nor does it encourage Canadians to pursue such programs that directly address job market needs, as other countries do. For instance, Australians are incentivized to pursue job-ready programs over arts or generalist degrees.[85] This lack of focus has exacerbated the rising rates of unemployment and underemployment. In 2023, a concerning trend emerged in the Canadian economy, commonly referred to as "credential inflation." This phenomenon refers to the increasing educational requirements for even basic job positions, with many of these credentials not necessarily aligning with the actual skills needed for the roles or significantly enhancing job performance. Instead, they often serve as barriers that deter young individuals from pursuing well-paying and stable career opportunities where they could excel. Consequently, young Canadian workers encounter difficulties in navigating economic shocks, layoffs, or industry changes after dedicating their prime working years to classrooms to avoid such misfortune. Beyond educational institutions that offer generic or non-career-oriented degrees, this artificial rise in educational demands benefits no one—not businesses, not employees, nor the broader economy. Instead of facilitating young Canadians' attainment of financial stability, opportunities for starting families, or prospects for entrepreneurial endeavors, this trend perpetuates negative consequences that can span generations, impacting productivity, social mobility, and wealth distribution.[86]
Credential inflation has evolved into a substantial barrier affecting a significant portion of the Canadian population. Possessing a higher education degree no longer guarantees a straightforward path to a middle-class lifestyle. This is evidenced by the growing number of university-educated individuals seeking assistance from Toronto's Daily Bread Food Bank. Recent survey results at the Food Bank reveal that 46 percent of respondents hold a university degree or diploma, with an additional nine percent possessing a graduate or professional degree. Furthermore, this issue extends its reach into the skilled trades sector, leading to an increased demand for assessments, licenses, and bureaucratic paperwork. Moreover, newcomers to Canada, who have led to believe they were invited based on their educational qualifications, are met with the surprise that their perfectly valid credentials are devalued, and that they are racialized right from the get-go. They are forced to undergo reeducation, testing, and licensing processes. This places newcomers at risk of financial drain even before they can establish themselves in the job market with dignity, and economic disenfranchisement that exacerbates the challenges faced by them.[86]
Below is a sortable table ofoverqualification percentages for undergraduates below the age of thirty-five, from a 2017 Statistics Canada study.[87]
| Subject | Women | Men |
|---|---|---|
| Arts | 26.3 | 24.9 |
| Biology | 18.8 | 21.5 |
| Business andadministration | 19.9 | 21.8 |
| Information science andcomputer science | 8.2 | 5.8 |
| Education and teaching | 6.2 | 8.0 |
| Engineering | 5.6 | 4.9 |
| General and integrated sciences | 21.0 | 22.2 |
| Humanities | 28.8 | 32.5 |
| Mathematics and related studies | 15.2 | 11.5 |
| Nursing | 1.9 | 3.5 |
| Physics andchemistry | 17.8 | 14.7 |
| Social science and thebehavioural sciences | 24.6 | 28.7 |
A 2017 study from Statistics Canada showed that, for women under the age of 35, themedian annual pay of undergraduates ranged from $41,238 in the arts to $75,027 in nursing. For men, the figures ranged from $44,327 in the arts to $78,054 in engineering.[88]
A 2017 study from Statistics Canada showed that, among men over the age of 24, the median annual pay ofapprenticeship holders is $72,955 per year, which is 7% more than they would have received with a typical college diploma. Among women, the figure is $38,230, which is actually 12% less than if they had started work straight out of high school. This discrepancy is explained by the tendency for men to seek training in engineering-related trades, while women often seek training in service trades such ashairstyling.[89] Four years after certification, median employment incomes for individual trades range from $21,000 for hairdressers to $107,220 forheavy equipment technicians.[90]
A 2018 study from Statistics Canada found that median earnings for women with master's degrees range from $65,200 in the arts to $124,200 in thepharmacy field. For men, the figures range from $69,700 in the humanities to $138,200 in the pharmacy field. Fully one-quarter of all master's degrees are in business subjects, where they typically result in a 27% pay increase compared to bachelor's degrees. In health, education, the arts and the social sciences, the median increase is in the 14% to 17% range. In theSTEM subjects, the increase is less than 10%. Finally, three out of five doctoral degrees are awarded in the STEM subjects.[91]
A 2020 Study from Statistics Canada found that most top-earners among bachelor's degree graduates came from various engineering specialties: 6 of the top 10 disciplines among men, and 7 of the top 10 disciplines among women were in engineering. At the master's degree level, most top-earning graduates came from business programs. Doctoral graduates who received the highest pay graduated from various program areas such as business, health, engineering, social sciences, and education. At both the bachelor's and master's degree levels, the most fields associated with the lowest pay were in the arts or humanities. At the doctoral level, biology had the lowest pay rates.[92]
Canada began offering higher education to international students in the early 2000s. By the late 2010s, the structure and services of higher education institutions increasingly shifted from a public service model to a customer-oriented approach. One major reason for this change is the consistent underfunding of universities by the government since the early 1980s, with no significant adjustments made to account for inflation.[93][94]
The Canadian government’s policy of tying open work permits and the possibility of transitioning to permanent residency to international student status has influenced higher education institutions and provincial quality assurance systems, blurring associated and interrelated boundaries. These institutions became silent partners in creating new programs or converting existing ones into what are often referred to as "cash cow programs." These programs aim to attract international students by offering courses that appear proficient but primarily consist of basic content that doesn't provide job skills, serving mainly as check-the-box courses for accreditation and generic courses that are less expensive to run. A common identifying characteristic of these programs is that courses, particularly those with high enrolment of international students, are often taught by contract tutors who lack the engagement and quality of responsible and empowering faculty. Consequently, students who enrol in cash cow programs earn degrees that have little value in the local and national job market or require years of study and significant financial investment to attain a modicum of value due to the bloated nature of such programs, leading them to become less-desirable migrant workers in the transatlantic job market, associated with the concept described by Western academics as "designer migrants" based on market value.[93][95][96][97]
Cash cow programs targeting international students are often expensive, leading to repeated calls for fairness from students who argue that tuition hikes are unjustified. In 2023, Alan Shepard, President of Western University, explained the reason behind higher tuition for international students: “If you're a domestic student — an Ontario student or a Canadian student — the government gives us funding to help with your education, and they effectively subsidize it. And for international students, that number is zero. So international tuition is definitely going to be higher.” He added that this trend is consistent with similar institutions in other English-speaking countries, and hence it's predictable for international students. According to Shepard, there is competition among premier institutions regarding how much they can charge, which has become the new normal in higher education.[93]
