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Central Europe
Guelf,Hohenstaufen, andAscanian domains in Germany about 1176
TheHigh Middle Ages, orHigh Medieval Period, was theperiod ofEuropean history betweenc. 1000 andc. 1300; it was preceded by theEarly Middle Ages and followed by theLate Middle Ages, which endedc. 1500 according tohistoriographical convention.[1][2] Key historical trends of the High Middle Ages include therapidly increasing population of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era, and theRenaissance of the 12th century, including the first developments ofrural exodus andurbanization. By 1350, the robust population increase had greatly benefited the European economy, which had reached levels that would not be seen again in some areas until the 19th century. That trend faltered in the early 14th century, as the result of numerous events which together comprised thecrisis of the late Middle Ages—most notable among them being theBlack Death, in addition to various regional wars and economic stagnation.
Fromc. 780, Europe saw the last of thebarbarian invasions[3] and became more socially and politically organized.[4] TheCarolingian Renaissance stimulated scientific and philosophical activity in Northern Europe. Thefirst universities started operating inBologna,Oxford,Paris,Salamanca,Cambridge andModena. TheVikings settled in the British Isles, France and elsewhere, and Norse Christian kingdoms started developing in their Scandinavian homelands. TheMagyars ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by 1000, a ChristianKingdom of Hungary had become a recognized state inCentral Europe that was forming alliances with regional powers. With the brief exception of theMongol invasions in the 13th century, major nomadic incursions ceased. The powerfulByzantine Empire of theMacedonian andKomnenos dynasties gradually gave way to the resurrectedSerbia andBulgaria and to a successorcrusader state (1204 to 1261), who continually fought each other until the end of the Latin Empire. The Byzantine Empire was reestablished in 1261 with the recapture ofConstantinople from the Latins, though it was no longer a major power and would continue to falter through the 14th century, with remnants lasting until the mid 15th century.
In the 11th century, populations north of theAlps began a more intensive settlement, targeting "new" lands, some areas of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of theWestern Roman Empire. In what historianCharles Higounet called the "great clearances",[5] Europeans cleared and cultivated some of the vast forests and marshes that lay across much of the continent. At the same time, settlers moved beyond the traditional boundaries of theFrankish Empire to new frontiers beyond theElbe River, which tripled the size of Germany in the process. TheCatholic Church, which reached the peak of its political power around then, called armies from across Europe to a series ofCrusades against theSeljuk Turks. The crusaders occupied theHoly Land and founded theCrusader States in theLevant. Other wars led to theNorthern Crusades. The Christian kingdomstook much of the Iberian Peninsula fromMuslim control, and theNormans conquered southern Italy, all part of the major population increases and the resettlement patterns of the era.
The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual andartistic works. The age also saw the rise ofethnocentrism,[dubious –discuss] which evolved later into modernnational identities in most of Europe, the ascent of the great Italiancity-states and the rise[citation needed] and fall of theIslamic civilization ofAl-Andalus. The rediscovery of the works ofAristotle, at first indirectly throughmedieval Jewish andIslamic philosophy,[6][7][8] ledMaimonides,Ibn Sina,Ibn Rushd,Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers of the period to expandScholasticism, a combination of Judeo-Islamic and Catholic ideologies with the ancient philosophy. For much of this period, Constantinople remained Europe's most populous city, andByzantine art reached apeak in the 12th century. In architecture, many of the most notableGothic cathedrals were built or completed around this period.
In England, theNorman Conquest of 1066 resulted in a kingdom ruled by aFrancophone nobility. TheNormans invaded Ireland in 1169 and soon established themselves in most of the country, although their stronghold was the southeast. Likewise,Scotland andWales were subdued intovassal states at about the same time, though Scotland later asserted its independence and Wales remained largely under the rule of independent native princes until the death ofLlywelyn ap Gruffydd in 1282.[9] TheExchequer was founded in the 12th century underKing Henry I, and the firstparliaments were convened. In 1215, after the loss ofNormandy,King John signed theMagna Carta into law, limiting the power ofEnglish monarchs.
A key geo-strategic development in theIberian Peninsula was the Christian conquest ofToledo in 1085.[10] Dominated by war, the societal structures and relations in the northern Christian kingdoms were subordinated to the demands of omnipresent military conflict.[11] The territorial expansion of the northern Christian kingdoms to the south brought the creation of border societies, where military demands on knights and foot soldiers and the promotion ofsettlement were prioritized over potentialseigneurial income;[12]military orders also played an important role in the borderlands in thesouthern meseta.[13] Agricultural models in areas withMediterranean climate were generally based on biennialcrop rotation.[14] Despite population growth, agricultural output remained relatively rigid throughout the period; between the 10th and 13th centuries, migration southwards to exposed areas was incentivized by the possibility of enjoying privileges and acquiring properties.[15] Conversely, theintensive agriculture-prevalent model in Muslim-ruled lands did not require territorial expansion.[16] While Muslim lands enjoyed a certain demographic and financial edge[clarification needed],Almoravids andAlmohads from northern Africa featured volatile state structures;[17] barring (unsuccessful) attempts to take Toledo, they did not stand out for carrying out an expansionist policy.[18]
In Italy, with the Norman conquest, the first great and powerful state was formed, theKingdom of Sicily with hereditary monarchy. Subsequently joined to the Holy Roman Empire, it had its moment of maximum splendor with the emperorFrederick II.
In the rest of Italy, independent city states grew affluent onEastern Mediterranean maritime trade. These were in particular thethalassocracies ofPisa,Amalfi,Genoa andVenice, which played a key role in European trade from then on, making these cities become major financial centers.[19]
From the mid-10th to the mid-11th centuries, the Scandinavian kingdoms were unified and Christianized, resulting in an end ofViking raids, and greater involvement in European politics. KingCnut of Denmark ruled over both England and Norway. After Cnut's death in 1035, England and Norway were both lost, and with the defeat ofValdemar II in 1227, Danish predominance in the region came to an end. Meanwhile, Norway extended its Atlantic possessions, ranging fromGreenland to theIsle of Man, while Sweden, underBirger Jarl, built up a power-base in theBaltic Sea. However, the Norwegian influence started to decline already in the same period, marked by theTreaty of Perth of 1266. Also,civil wars raged in Norway between 1130 and 1240.
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By the time of the High Middle Ages, theCarolingian Empire had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. France pushed to the west. TheAngevin Empire controlled much of France in the 12th century and early 13th century until the French retook much of their previous territory.
By the time of the High Middle Ages, theCarolingian Empire had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. Germany was significantly more eastern. Germany was under the banner of theHoly Roman Empire, which reached its high-water mark of unity and political power underKaiser Frederick Barbarossa.
During the successful reign of KingDavid IV of Georgia (1089–1125), theKingdom of Georgia grew in strength and expelled theSeljuk Empire from its lands. David's decisive victory in theBattle of Didgori (1121) against the Seljuk Turks, as a result of which Georgia recaptured its lost capitalTbilisi, marked the beginning of theGeorgian Golden Age. David's granddaughterQueen Tamar continued the upward rise, successfully neutralizing internal opposition and embarking on an energetic foreign policy aided by further decline of the hostileSeljuk Turks. Relying on a powerful military elite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated vast lands spanning from present-day southernRussia on theBlack Sea to theCaspian Sea. Georgia remained a leading regional power until its collapse under theMongol attacks within two decades after Tamar's death.
In the High Middle Ages, Hungary became one of the most powerful medieval states in Europe. The ChristianKingdom of Hungary was established in 1000 under KingSaint Stephen I of Hungary, and ruled by theÁrpád dynasty for the following centuries. KingSaint Ladislaus completed the work of KingSaint Stephen. He consolidated the Hungarian state power and strengthened the influence ofChristianity. His charismatic personality, strategic leadership and military talents resulted the termination of internal power struggles and foreign military threats. The Kingdom of Hungary expanded to theAdriatic coast and entered apersonal union withCroatia in 1102, by establish othervassal states, Hungary became a small empire that extended its control over theSoutheast Europe and theCarpathian region. The Hungarian royal Árpád dynasty gave the world the most saints and blessed from a single family.
During the High Middle Ages Lithuania emerged as aDuchy of Lithuania in the early 13th century, then briefly becoming theKingdom of Lithuania from 1251 to 1263. After the assassination of its first Christian kingMindaugas Lithuania was known asGrand Duchy of Lithuania. Unconquered during theLithuanian Crusade, Lithuania itself rapidly expanded to the East due to conquests and became one of the largest states in Europe.
In the mid-10th century Poland emerged as a duchy afterMieszko I, the ruler of thePolans, conquered the surroundingLechitic tribes in the region. Then in 1025 under the rule ofBolesław I the Brave, Poland became a kingdom.
The High Middle Ages saw the height and decline of the Slavic state ofKievan Rus' and emergence ofCumania. Later, theMongol invasion in the 13th century had a great impact on the east ofEurope, as many countries of the region were invaded, pillaged, conquered or vassalized.
During the first half of this period (c. 1025—1185),Byzantine Empire dominated theSoutheast Europe, and under theKomnenian emperors there was a revival of prosperity and urbanization; however, their domination ofSoutheast Europe was coming to an end with a successfulVlach-Bulgarian rebellion in 1185, and henceforth the region was divided between the Byzantines in Greece, some parts ofMacedonia, andThrace, the Bulgarians inMoesia and most of Thrace and Macedonia, and theSerbs to the northwest. Eastern and Western churches had formally split in the 11th century, and despite occasional periods of co-operation during the 12th century, in 1204 theFourth Crusade treacherously capturedConstantinople. This severely damaged the Byzantines, and their power was ultimately weakened by theSeljuks and the risingOttoman Empire in the 14–15th century. The power of theLatin Empire, however, was short-lived after the Crusader army was routed byBulgarian EmperorKaloyan in theBattle of Adrianople (1205).
TheMedieval Warm Period, the period from the 10th century to about the 14th century in Europe, was a relatively warm and gentle interval ended by the generally colderLittle Ice Age which would continue until the middle of the 19th century. Farmers grewwheat well north into Scandinavia, andwine grapes in northern England, although the maximum expansion of vineyards appeared to occur within the Little Ice Age period. During this time, a high demand for wine and steady volume ofalcohol consumption inspired a viticulture revolution of progress.[20] The relative protection fromfamine during this time allowed Europe's population to increase, despite the famine in 1315 that killed 1.5 million people. This increased population contributed to the founding of new towns and an increase in industrial and economic activity during the period. They also established trade and a comprehensive production of alcohol. Food production also increased during this time as new ways of farming were introduced, including the use of a heavier plow, horses instead of oxen, and a three-field system that allowed the cultivation of a greater variety of crops than the earlier two-field system—notablylegumes, the growth of which prevented the depletion of important nitrogen from the soil.
During the High Middle Ages, the idea of a Christian warrior started to change as Christianity grew more prominent in medieval Europe. TheCodes of Chivalry promoted the ideal knight to be selfless, faithful, and fierce against those who threaten the weak.[21] Household heavy cavalry (knights) became common in the 11th century across Europe, andtournaments were invented. Tournaments allowed knights to establish their family name while being able to gather vast wealth and renown through victories. In the 12th century, theCluny monks promoted ethical warfare and inspired the formation oforders of chivalry, such as theTemplar Knights. Inherited titles of nobility were established during this period. In 13th-century Germany, knighthood became anotherinheritable title, although one of the less prestigious, and the trend spread to other countries.
TheEast–West Schism of 1054 formally separated the Christian church into two parts:Roman Catholicism in Western Europe andEastern Orthodoxy in the east. It occurred whenPope Leo IX andPatriarch Michael Iexcommunicated each other, mainly over disagreement over thefilioque, an addition to the creed concerning the origin of the Holy Spirit, as well as disputes as to the existence of papal authority over the four Easternpatriarchs, use of unleavened bread in the liturgy, and fasting days.
The Catholic Crusades occurred between the 11th and 13th centuries. They were conducted under papal authority, initially with the intent of reestablishing Christian rule inThe Holy Land by taking the area from the MuslimFatimid Caliphate. The Fatimids had captured Palestine in AD 970, lost it to theSeljuk Turks in 1073 and recaptured it in 1098, just before they lost it again in 1099 as a result of theFirst Crusade.
In the context of the crusades, monastic military orders were founded that would become the template for the late medievalchivalric orders.
TheKnights Templar were a Christian military order founded after theFirst Crusade to help protectChristian pilgrims from hostile locals and highway bandits. The order was deeply involved in banking, and in 1307Philip the Fair (Philippine le Bel) had the entire order arrested in France and dismantled on charges of alleged heresy.
TheKnights Hospitaller were originally aChristian organization founded inJerusalem in 1080 to provide care for poor, sick, or injuredpilgrims to theHoly Land. After Jerusalem was taken in the First Crusade, it became areligious/military order that was charged with the care and defence of theCrusader states. After the Holy Lands were eventually taken by Muslim forces, it moved its operations toRhodes, and laterMalta.
TheTeutonic Knights were a German religious order formed in 1190, in the city ofAcre, to aid Christian pilgrims on their way to the Holy Lands and to operate hospitals for the sick and injured inOutremer. After Muslim forces captured the Holy Lands, the order moved toTransylvania in 1211 and later, after being expelled, invaded paganPrussia with the intention of Christianizing theBaltic region. Yet, both before and after the Order's main pagan opponent,Lithuania,converted to Christianity, the Order had already attacked other Christian nations such asNovgorod andPoland. The Teutonic Knights' power hold, which became considerable, was broken in 1410, at theBattle of Grunwald, where the Order suffered a devastating defeat against a joint Polish-Lithuanian army. After Grunwald, the Order declined in power until 1809 when it was officially dissolved. There were ten crusades in total.
The newChristian method of learning was influenced byAnselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) from the rediscovery of the works ofAristotle, at first indirectly through Medieval Jewish and Muslim Philosophy (Maimonides,Avicenna, andAverroes) and then throughAristotle's own works brought back fromByzantine and Muslim libraries; and those whom he influenced, most notablyAlbertus Magnus,Bonaventure andAbélard. Many scholastics believed inempiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. They opposedChristian mysticism, and the Platonist-Augustinian belief that themind is an immaterial substance. The most famous of thescholastics wasThomas Aquinas (later declared a "Doctor of the Church"), who led the move away from thePlatonic andAugustinian and towards Aristotelianism. Aquinas developed aphilosophy of mind by writing that themind was at birth atabula rasa ("blank slate") that was given the ability to think and recognize forms or ideas through a divine spark. Other notable scholastics includedMuhammad Averroes,Roscelin, Abélard,Peter Lombard, andFrancisco Suárez. One of the main questions during this time was theproblem of universals. Prominent opponents of various aspects of the scholastic mainstream includedDuns Scotus,William of Ockham,Peter Damian,Bernard of Clairvaux, and theVictorines.
Christianheresies existed in Europe before the 11th century but only in small numbers and of local character: in most cases, a rogue priest, or a village returning to pagan traditions. However, beginning in the 11th century, mass-movement heresies appeared. The roots of this can be partially sought in the rise of urban cities, free merchants, and a new money-based economy. The rural values of monasticism held little appeal to urban people who began to form sects more in tune with urban culture. The first large-scale heretical movements in Western Europe originated in the newly urbanized areas such as southern France and northern Italy and were probably influenced by theBogomils and otherdualist movements. These heresies were on a scale the Catholic Church had never seen before and as such the response was one of elimination for some (such as theCathars). Some Catholic monastic leaders, such asFrancis of Assisi, the founder of theFranciscans, had to be recognized directly by the Pope so as not to be confused with actual heretical movements such as theWaldensians.
Catharism was a movement withGnostic elements that originated around the middle of the 10th century, branded by the contemporaryRoman Catholic Church asheretical. It existed throughout much ofWestern Europe, but its origination was inLanguedoc and surrounding areas in southern France.
The nameCathar stems fromGreekkatharos, "pure". One of the first recorded uses isEckbert von Schönau who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra Germania catharos appellat." ([In] our Germany [one] calls these [people] "Cathars".)
The Cathars are also calledAlbigensians. This name originates from the end of the 12th century, and was used by the chroniclerGeoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town ofAlbi (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was atToulouse and in the neighbouring districts.
TheAlbigensians were strong in southern France, northern Italy, and the southwesternHoly Roman Empire.
TheBogomils were strong in theSoutheastern Europe, and became theofficial religion supported by the Bosnian kings.
Peter Waldo ofLyon was a wealthy merchant who gave up his riches around 1175 after a religious experience and became a preacher. He founded the Waldensians which became a Christian sect believing that all religious practices should have strictly scriptural bases. Waldo was denied the right to preach his sermons by the Third Lateran Council in 1179, which he did not obey and continued to speak freely until he was excommunicated in 1184. Waldo was critical of the Christian clergy saying they did not live according to the word. He rejected the practice of selling indulgences (simony), as well as the common saint cult practices of the day.
Waldensians are considered a forerunner to theProtestant Reformation, and they melted intoProtestantism with the outbreak of the Reformation and became a part of the widerReformed tradition after the views ofJohn Calvin and his theological successors inGeneva proved very similar to their own theological thought. Waldensian churches still exist, located on several continents.
In Northern Europe, theHanseatic League, a federation of free cities to advance trade by sea, was founded in the 12th century, with the foundation of the city ofLübeck, which would later dominate the League, in 1158–1159. Many northern cities of theHoly Roman Empire became Hanseatic cities, includingAmsterdam,Cologne,Bremen,Hanover and Berlin. Hanseatic cities outside the Holy Roman Empire were, for instance,Bruges and the Polish city ofGdańsk (Danzig), as well as Königsberg, capital of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. InBergen, Norway andVeliky Novgorod, Russia the league had factories and middlemen. In this period the Germans started colonising Europe beyond the Empire, intoPrussia andSilesia.
In the late 13th century, aVenetian explorer namedMarco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel theSilk Road to China. Westerners became more aware of the Far East when Polo documented his travels inIl Milione. He was followed by numerous Christian missionaries to the East, such asWilliam of Rubruck,Giovanni da Pian del Carpine,André de Longjumeau,Odoric of Pordenone,Giovanni de' Marignolli,Giovanni di Monte Corvino, and other travellers such asNiccolò de' Conti.
Philosophical and scientific teaching of theEarly Middle Ages was based upon the few copies and commentaries of ancient Greek texts that remained in Western Europe after the collapse of theWestern Roman Empire. Most of them were studied only in Latin as knowledge of Greek was very limited.
This scenario changed during theRenaissance of the 12th century. The intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth ofmedieval universities. The increased contact with the Islamic world inSpain andSicily during theReconquista, and the Byzantine world and MuslimLevant during theCrusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Arabic and Greek texts, including the works ofAristotle,Alhazen, andAverroes. The European universities aided materially in thetranslation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed forscientific communities.
At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors,[22] allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural science contained in these texts began to be extended by notablescholastics such asRobert Grosseteste,Roger Bacon,Albertus Magnus andDuns Scotus. Precursors of the modernscientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in hisOpus Majus.
During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. In less than a century there were more inventions developed and applied usefully than in the previous thousand years of human history all over the globe. The period saw majortechnological advances, including the adoption or invention ofwindmills,watermills,printing (though not yet with movable type),gunpowder, theastrolabe,glasses,scissors of the modern shape, a betterclock, and greatly improved ships. The latter two advances made possible the dawn of theAge of Discovery. These inventions were influenced by foreign culture and society.
Alfred W. Crosby described some of this technological revolution inThe Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600 and other major historians of technology have also noted it.
Art in the High Middle Ages includes these important movements:
Gothic architecture superseded theRomanesque style by combiningflying buttresses, gothic (or pointed)arches andribbed vaults. It was influenced by the spiritual background of the time, being religious in essence: thin horizontal lines and grates made the building strive towards the sky. Architecture was made to appear light and weightless, as opposed to the dark and bulky forms of the previousRomanesque style. It was commonly thought that light was an expression of God; therefore, architectural techniques were adapted and developed to build churches that reflected this teaching. Colorfulglass windows enhanced the spirit of lightness. As color was much rarer at medieval times than today, it can be assumed that these virtuoso works of art had an awe-inspiring impact on the common man from the street. High-rising intricate ribbed, and laterfan vaultings demonstrated movement toward heaven. Veneration of God was also expressed by the relatively large size of these buildings. A gothic cathedral therefore not only invited the visitors to elevate themselves spiritually, it was also meant to demonstrate the greatness of God. Thefloor plan of a gothic cathedral corresponded to the rules of scholasticism: According toErwin Panofsky'sGothic Architecture and Scholasticism, the plan was divided into sections and uniform subsections. These characteristics are exhibited by the most famous sacral building of the time:Notre Dame de Paris.
A variety of cultures influenced the literature of the High Middle Ages, one of the strongest among them being Christianity. The connection to Christianity was greatest inLatin literature, which influenced thevernacular languages in theliterary cycle of theMatter of Rome. Otherliterary cycles, or interrelated groups of stories, included theMatter of France (stories aboutCharlemagne and his court), theAcritic songs dealing with the chivalry ofByzantium's frontiersmen, and perhaps the best known cycle, theMatter of Britain, which featured tales aboutKing Arthur, his court, and related stories fromBrittany,Cornwall,Wales and Ireland. An anonymous German poet tried to bring the Germanic myths from theMigration Period to the level of the French and British epics, producing theNibelungenlied. There was also a quantity of poetry and historical writings which were written during this period, such asHistoria Regum Britanniae byGeoffrey of Monmouth.
Despite political decline during the late 12th and much of the 13th centuries, the Byzantine scholarly tradition remained particularly fruitful over the time period. One of the most prominent philosophers of the 11th century,Michael Psellos, reinvigoratedNeoplatonism on Christian foundations and bolstered the study ofancient philosophical texts, along with contributing to history, grammar, and rhetorics. His pupil and successor at the head of Philosophy at theUniversity of ConstantinopleIoannes Italos continued the Platonic line in Byzantine thought and was criticized by the Church for holding opinions it considered heretical, such as the doctrine oftransmigration. Two Orthodox theologians important in the dialogue between the eastern and western churches wereNikephoros Blemmydes andMaximus Planudes. Byzantine historical tradition also flourished with the works of the brothersNiketas andMichael Choniates in the beginning of the 13th century andGeorge Akropolites a generation later. Dating from 12th century Byzantine Empire is alsoTimarion, an Orthodox Christian anticipation ofDivine Comedy. Around the same time the so-calledByzantine novel rose in popularity with its synthesis of ancient pagan and contemporaneous Christian themes.
At the same time southern France gave birth toOccitan literature, which is best known fortroubadours who sang ofcourtly love. It included elements from Latin literature and Arab-influenced Spain and North Africa. Later its influence spread to several cultures in Western Europe, notably in Portugal and the Minnesänger in Germany. Provençal literature also reached Sicily and Northern Italy laying the foundation of the"sweet new style" ofDante and laterPetrarca. Indeed, the most important poem of theLate Middle Ages, the allegoricalDivine Comedy, is to a large degree a product of both thetheology of Thomas Aquinas and the largely secular Occitan literature.
The surviving music of the High Middle Ages is primarily religious in nature, sincemusic notation developed in religious institutions, and the application of notation to secular music was a later development. Early in the period,Gregorian chant was the dominant form of church music; other forms, beginning withorganum, and later includingclausulae,conductus, and themotet, developed using the chant as source material.
During the 11th century,Guido of Arezzo was one of the first to develop musical notation, which made it easier for singers to remember Gregorian chants.
It was during the 12th and 13th centuries that Gregorian plainchant gave birth to polyphony, which appeared in the works of FrenchNotre Dame School (Léonin andPérotin). Later it evolved into thears nova (Philippe de Vitry,Guillaume de Machaut) and the musical genres of late Middle Ages. An important composer during the 12th century was thenunHildegard of Bingen.
The most significant secular movement was that of thetroubadours, who arose inOccitania (Southern France) in the late 11th century. The troubadours were oftenitinerant, came from all classes of society, and wrote songs on a variety of topics, though with a particular focus oncourtly love. Their style went on to influence thetrouvères of northern France, theminnesingers of Germany, and the composers of secularmusic of the Trecento in northern Italy.
Economic and political changes in the High Middle Ages led to the formation ofguilds and the growth of towns, and this would lead to significant changes for theatre starting in this time and continuing into theLate Middle Ages. Trade guilds began to perform plays, usually religiously based, and often dealing with a biblical story that referenced their profession. For instance, a baker's guild would perform a reenactment of theLast Supper.[23] In theBritish Isles, plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacularMystery plays were written in cycles of a large number of plays:York (48 plays),Chester (24),Wakefield (32) andUnknown (42). A larger number of plays survive from France and Germany in this period and some type of religious dramas were performed in nearly every European country in the Late Middle Ages. Many of these plays containedcomedy,devils,villains andclowns.[24]
There were also a number of secular performances staged in the Middle Ages, the earliest of which isThe Play of the Greenwood byAdam de la Halle in 1276. It contains satirical scenes andfolk material such asfaeries and other supernatural occurrences.Farces also rose dramatically in popularity after the 13th century. The majority of these plays come from France and Germany and are similar in tone and form, emphasizing sex and bodily excretions.[25]
The French historian of the early medieval forest, Charles Higounet, produced a map in the 1960s, which has been much reproduced since, that purports to show the distribution of the forest cover in Europe on the eve of the so-called 'great clearances' (les grands défrichements) between 1000 and 1300.
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