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Thehigh-speed rail (HSR,Chinese:高铁;pinyin:Gāotiě) network in thePeople's Republic of China (PRC) is theworld's longest and most extensively used.[1][2][3] The HSR network encompasses newly built rail lines with a design speed of 200–380 km/h (120–240 mph).[4] China's HSR accounts for two-thirds of the world's total high-speed railway networks.[5][6] Almost all HSR trains, tracks, and services are owned and operated by theChina State Railway Group Co. under the brandChina Railway High-speed (CRH).
Since the mid-2000s, China's high-speed rail network has experienced rapid growth. CRH wasintroduced in April 2007, with theBeijing-Tianjin intercity rail, which became fully operational in August 2008, being the first passenger-dedicated HSR line. Currently, the HSR extends to allprovincial-level administrative divisions and theHong Kong SAR with the exception ofMacau SAR.[note 1][note 2][note 3]
Notable HSR lines in China include theBeijing–Kunming high-speed railway, currently the world's longest HSR line in operation, at a length of 2,760 km (1,710 mi), and theBeijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which is recognized as the world's fastest operating conventional train services. Additionally, theShanghai Maglev is the world's first high-speed commercialmagnetic levitation (maglev) line that reaches a top speed of 431 km/h (268 mph).[8]
In China, high-speed rail refers to rail services operating at speeds exceeding 200 km/h (124 mph). The system generally consists of passenger-dedicated lines (PDLs) with a design speed of 350 kilometres per hour (217 mph), which form the backbone of the national network; regional lines with a design speed of 250 kilometres per hour (155 mph), providing fast interprovincial connections; and intercity lines with a design speed of 200 to 350 kilometres per hour (124 to 217 mph), serving metropolitan areas with more frequent stops for regional service.[9]
Electric multiple unit (EMU) trainsets typically consist of 8 or 16 cars and are designed for frequent service with relatively light axle loads. EMU services running below 200 km/h (124 mph) or on mixed-traffic lines are not classified as high-speed rail unless the line is specifically intended for future speed upgrades.
In practice, high-speed rail services in China are divided into three categories:
Acquiring high-speed rail technology had been a major goal of Chinese state planners. Chinese train-makers, after receiving transferred foreign technology, have been able to achieve a degree of self-sufficiency in making the next generation of high-speed trains by producing key parts and improving upon foreign designs.
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Examples of technology transfer includeMitsubishi Electric’s MT205 traction motor and ATM9 transformer toCSR Zhuzhou Electric,Hitachi’s YJ92A traction motor and Alstom's YJ87A Traction motor toCNR Yongji Electric, Siemens’ TSG series pantograph toZhuzhou Gofront Electric.
For foreign train manufacturers, technology transfer was a crucial part of gaining market access in China.Bombardier, the first foreign train manufacturer to form a joint venture in China, has been sharing technology for the manufacture of railway passenger cars and rolling stock since 1998. Zhang Jianwei, President of Bombardier China, stated that in a 2009 interview, “Whatever technology Bombardier has, whatever the Chinese market needs, there is no need to ask. Bombardier transfers advanced andmature technology to China, which we do not treat as an experimental market.”[10] Unlike other series, which have imported prototypes, all CRH1 trains have been assembled at Bombardier's joint venture with CSR, Bombardier Sifang inQingdao.
Kawasaki's cooperation withCSR did not last as long. Within two years of cooperation with Kawasaki to produce 60 CRH2A sets, CSR began in 2008 to build CRH2B, CRH2C, and CRH2E models at its Sifang plant independently without assistance from Kawasaki.[11] According to CSR president Zhang Chenghong, CSR "made the bold move of forming a systemic development platform for high-speed locomotives and further upgrading its design and manufacturing technology. Later, we began to independently develop high-speed CRH trains with a maximum velocity of 300–350 kilometers per hour, which eventually rolled off the production line in December 2007."[12] Since then, CSR has ended its cooperation with Kawasaki.[13] Kawasaki challenged China's high-speed rail project for patent theft, but backed off the effort.[14]
China Railway High-speed runs differentelectric multiple unit trainsets, the nameHexie Hao (simplified Chinese:和谐号;traditional Chinese:和諧號;pinyin:Héxié Hào;lit. 'Harmony') is for designs which are imported from other nations and designated CRH-1 through CRH-5 and CRH380A(L), CRH380B(L), and CRH380C(L). CRH trainsets are intended to provide fast and convenient travel between cities. Some of the Hexie Hao train sets are manufactured locally through technology transfer, a key requirement for China. The signalling, track and support structures, control software, and station design are developed domestically with foreign elements as well. By 2010, the truck system as a whole is predominantly Chinese.[15] China currently holds several new patents related to the internal components of these trains, redesigned in China to allow the trains to run at higher speeds than the foreign designs allowed. However, these patents are only valid within China, and as such hold no international power. The weakness on intellectual property of Hexie Hao causes obstruction for China to export its high-speed rail related product, which leads to the development of the completely redesigned train franchise calledFuxing Hao (simplified Chinese:复兴号;traditional Chinese:復興號;pinyin:Fùxīng Hào;lit. 'Rejuvenation') that is based on indigenous technologies.[15][16][17][18]
The world's first commercial maglev line, capable of speeds up to 430 km/h, opened in Shanghai in 2002 using German technology, linking Longyang Road station with Shanghai Pudong International Airport. On October 19, 2010, the Ministry of Railways announced the beginning of research and development of "super-speed" railway technology, aiming to increase maximum train speeds to over 500 km/h (311 mph).[19]
In October 2016,CRRC announced research and development of a 600 km/h (373 mph) maglev train, theCRRC 600, and the construction of a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) test track.[20] In June 2020, a prototype trial run was conducted atTongji University, with a planned launch targeted for 2025.[21]
In July 2021, China's first high-speed maglev train with a designed top speed of 600 km/h rolled off the production line inQingdao,Shandong. Developed by CRRC Qingdao Sifang, the train underwent testing on dedicated maglev tracks to prepare for commercial operation.[22]
On 17 July 2025, CRRC officially unveiled the 600 km/h high-speed maglev train at the 12th UIC World Congress on High-Speed Rail in Beijing. The train is designed to bridge the gap between conventional high-speed rail (with a maximum operating speed of 350 km/h) and air travel (900–1,000 km/h).[22] Using electromagnetic suspension, the maglev operates without wheel–rail contact, allowing for quieter, smoother, and more efficient service. According to CRRC, the train offers advantages including high speed, safety, reliability, large passenger capacity, lower maintenance costs, and environmental sustainability.[22] The train is expected to enter commercial service within five to ten years and could significantly reduce travel times; for example, the Beijing–Shanghai journey could be shortened from around five hours to about two and a half hours.[22]
China's high-speed rail network relies heavily on advanced track technology to allow trains to operate safely at high speeds. A key innovation is the widespread use ofballastless tracks, which replace the traditional gravel base with a solid concrete slab. These tracks provide a smoother ride, reduce long-term maintenance costs, and can handle frequent, heavy train traffic.
Over the years, China has developed several types of ballastless track within the Chinese Railway Track System (CRTS), including prefabricated slabs that simplify construction and allow precise standardization. Track designs are optimized for different speeds, train loads, and environmental conditions such as temperature variations and uneven subgrade settlement. Advanced design methods, such as the limit state method, are increasingly used to improve safety and material efficiency compared with older allowable stress method approaches.[23]
Currently, four main types of ballastless track are used in China's high-speed rail network: CRTS I, CRTS II, CRTS III slab, and CRTS double-block. CRTS I, CRTS II slab, and CRTS double-block track types were developed by Chinese railway companies based on technology transferred from Germany and Japan. CRTS III slab track is a Chinese innovation, improving upon previous designs and adapted for domestic conditions.[24]
China has increasingly promoted the export of its high-speed rail technology, with the most significant achievement to date inIndonesia. In October 2023, theWhoosh line betweenJakarta andBandung opened as the first operational high-speed railway in Southeast Asia.[25][26] Built byChina Railway Construction Corporation and operated by a joint venture with Indonesian partners, the project is considered the first complete export of China's HSR system, including design, construction, rolling stock, and operations.[27]
China has also participated in projects elsewhere. InTurkey, theChina Railway Construction Corporation built a 30 km section of theAnkara–Istanbul high-speed railway completed in 2014.[28] InEurope, Chinese companies are involved in construction of theBelgrade–Budapest railway linking Serbia and Hungary. Moreover, inSoutheast Asia, further high-speed rail projects with Chinese involvement are advancing inThailand and under discussion inVietnam. Although not designed for the same speeds, China has also exported 160 km/h electrified lines, such as theBoten–Vientiane railway in Laos, often described as part of a broader pan-Asian high-speed corridor.
Beyond completed and under-construction projects, China has signed agreements or placed bids for HSR lines inRussia (the Moscow–Kazan route), Venezuela, Argentina, Saudi Arabia,Brazil (São Paulo–Rio de Janeiro), and theUnited States.[29] While many of these projects remain at the proposal or bidding stage, they reflect China's emergence as a competitor to established Japanese and European suppliers in the global high-speed rail market.
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The earliest example of a fast commercial train service in China was theAsia Express, a luxury passenger train that operated in Japanese-controlledManchuria from 1934 to 1943.[30] Thesteam-powered train, which ran on theSouth Manchuria Railway fromDalian to Xinjing (Changchun), had a top commercial speed of 110 km/h (68 mph) and a test speed of 130 km/h (81 mph).[30] It was faster than the fastest trains in Japan at the time. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, this train model was renamed the SL-7 and was used by the Chinese Minister of Railways.
State planning for China's current high-speed railway network began in the early 1990s under the leadership ofDeng Xiaoping. He set up what became known as the "high-speed rail dream" after his visit to Japan in 1978, where he was deeply impressed by theShinkansen, the world's first high speed rail system.[31] In December 1990, theMinistry of Railways (MOR) submitted to theNational People's Congress a proposal to build a high-speed railway between Beijing and Shanghai.[32] At the time, theBeijing–Shanghai Railway was already at capacity, and the proposal was jointly studied by theScience & Technology Commission,State Planning Commission, State Economic & Trade Commission, and the MOR.[32] In December 1994, theState Council commissioned a feasibility study for the line.[32]
Policy planners debated the necessity and economic viability of high-speed rail service. Supporters argued that high-speed rail would boost future economic growth. Opponents noted that high-speed rail in other countries was expensive and mostly unprofitable. Overcrowding on existing rail lines, they said, could be solved by expanding capacity through higher speed and frequency of service.[citation needed] In 1995, PremierLi Peng announced that preparatory work on the Beijing Shanghai HSR would begin in the 9thFive Year Plan (1996–2000), but construction was not scheduled until the first decade of the 21st century.
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In 1993,commercial train service in China averaged only 48 km/h (30 mph) and was steadily losing market share toairline and highway travel on the country's expanding network ofexpressways.[33][34] The MOR focused modernization efforts on increasing the service speed and capacity on existing lines throughdouble-tracking,electrification, improvinggrade (through tunnels and bridges), reducing turn curvature and installingcontinuous welded rail. Through five rounds of"Speed-Up" campaigns in April 1997, October 1998, October 2000, November 2001, and April 2004, passenger service on 7,700 km (4,800 mi) of existing tracks was upgraded to reach sub-high speeds of 160 km/h (100 mph).[35]
A notable example is theGuangzhou–Shenzhen railway, which in December 1994 became the first line in China to offer sub-high-speed service of 160 km/h (99 mph) using domestically produced DF-class diesel locomotives. The line was electrified in 1998, and Swedish-madeX 2000 trains increased the service speed to 200 km/h (124 mph). After the completion of a third track in 2000 and a fourth in 2007, the line became the first in China to run high-speed passenger and freight services on separate tracks.
The completion of the sixth round of the "Speed-Up" Campaign in April 2007 brought HSR service to more existing lines: 423 km (263 mi) capable of 250 km/h (155 mph) train service and 3,002 km (1,865 mi) capable of 200 km/h (124 mph).[36][note 4] In all, travel speed increased on 22,000 km (14,000 mi), or one-fifth, of the national rail network, and the average speed of passenger trains improved to 70 km/h (43 mph). The introduction of more non-stop services between large cities also helped to reduce travel time. The non-stop express train from Beijing toFuzhou shortened travel time from 33.5 hours to less than 20 hours.[39]
In addition to track and scheduling improvements, the MOR also deployed fasterCRH series trains. During the Sixth Railway Speed Up Campaign, 52 CRH trainsets (CRH1,CRH2 andCRH5) entered into operation. The new trains reduced travel time between Beijing and Shanghai by two hours to just under 10 hours. Some 295 stations have been built or renovated to allow high-speed trains.[40][41]
The development of the HSR network in China was initially delayed by a debate over the type of track technology to be used. In June 1998, at a State Council meeting with theChinese Academies of Sciences andEngineering, PremierZhu Rongji asked whether the high-speed railway between Beijing and Shanghai still being planned could usemaglev technology.[42] At the time, planners were divided between using high-speed trains with wheels that run on conventionalstandard gauge tracks or magnetic levitation trains that run on special maglev tracks for a new national high-speed rail network.
Maglev received a big boost in 2000 when theShanghai Municipal Government agreed to purchase aturnkeyTransRapid train system fromGermany for the 30.5 km (19.0 mi) rail link connectingShanghai Pudong International Airport and thecity. In 2004, theShanghai Maglev Train became the world's first commercially operated high-speed maglev and remains the fastest commercial train in the world with peak speeds of 431 km/h (268 mph) and makes the 30.5 km (19.0 mi) trip in less than 7.5 minutes. Despite an unmatched advantage in speed, the maglev has not gained widespread use in China's high-speed rail network due to high costs, German refusals to share technology and concerns about safety. The price tag of the Shanghai Maglev was believed to be $1.3 billion and was partially financed by the German government. The refusal of the Transrapid Consortium to share technology and source production in China made large-scale maglev production much more costly than high-speed train technology for conventional lines. Finally, residents living along the proposed maglev route raised health concerns about noise andelectromagnetic radiation emitted by the trains, despite an environmental assessment by the Shanghai Academy of Environmental Sciences saying the line was safe.[43] These concerns have prevented the construction of the proposedextension of the maglev to Hangzhou. Even the more modest plan to extend the maglev to Shanghai's other airport,Hongqiao couldn't be completed. Instead,a conventional subway line was built to connect the two airports, and aconventional high-speed rail line was built between Shanghai and Hangzhou.[note 5]
While maglev was drawing attention to Shanghai, conventional track HSR technology was being tested on the newly completedQinhuangdao-Shenyang Passenger Railway. This 405 km (252 mi) standard gauge, dual-track, electrified line was built between 1999 and 2003. In June 2002, a domestically made DJF2 train set a record of 292.8 km/h (181.9 mph) on the track. TheChina Star (DJJ2) train followed the same September with a new record of 321 km/h (199 mph). The line supports commercial train service at speeds of 200–250 km/h (120–160 mph) and has become a segment of the rail corridor between Beijing and Northeast China. The Qinhuangdao-Shenyang Line showed the greater compatibility of HSR on conventional track with the rest of China's standard gauge rail network.
In 2004, the State Council in itsMid-to-Long Term Railway Development Plan, adopted conventional track HSR technology over maglev for the Beijing–Shanghai High Speed Railway and three other north–south high-speed rail lines. This decision ended the debate and cleared the way for rapid construction of standard gauge, passenger dedicated HSR lines in China.[44][45]
Despite setting speed records on test tracks, the DJJ2, DJF2 and other domestically produced high-speed trains were insufficiently reliable for commercial operation.[46] The State Council turned to advanced technology abroad but made it clear in directives that China's HSR expansion could not solely benefit foreign economies and should also be used to develop its own high-speed train building capacity through technology transfers.[46] This would later allow the Chinese government throughCRRC to make the more reliableFuxing Hao andHexie Hao trains. TheCRH380 series (or family) of trains was initially built with direct cooperation (or help) from foreign trainmakers, but newer trainsets are based on transferred technology, just like the Hexie and Fuxing Hao.
In 2003, the MOR was believed to favor Japan'sShinkansen technology, especially the700 series.[46] The Japanese government touted the 40-year track record of the Shinkansen and offered favorable financing. A Japanese report envisioned a winner-take all scenario in which the winning technology provider would supply China's trains for over 8,000 km (5,000 mi) of high-speed rail.[47] However, Chinese citizens angry withJapan's denial of World War II war crimes organized a web campaign to oppose the awarding of HSR contracts to Japanese companies. The protests gathered over a million signatures and politicized the issue.[48] The MOR delayed the decision, broadened the bidding and adopted a diversified approach to adopting foreign high-speed train technology.
In June 2004, the MOR solicited bids to make 200 high-speed train sets that can run 200 km/h (124 mph).[46]Alstom of France,Siemens ofGermany,Bombardier Transportation based in Germany and a Japanese consortium led byKawasaki all submitted bids. With the exception of Siemens, which refused to lower its demand ofCN¥350 million per train set and €390 million for the technology transfer, the other three were all awarded portions of the contract.[46] All had to adapt their HSR train-sets to China's own common standard and assemble units through localjoint ventures (JV) or cooperate with Chinese manufacturers. Bombardier, through its joint venture with CSR'sSifang Locomotive and Rolling Stock Co (CSR Sifang), Bombardier Sifang (Qingdao) Transportation Ltd (BST), won an order for 40 eight-car train sets based on Bombardier'sRegina design.[49] These trains, designatedCRH1A, were delivered in 2006. Kawasaki won an order for 60 train sets based on itsE2 Series Shinkansen for ¥9.3 billion.[50] Of the 60 train sets, three were directly delivered fromNagoya, Japan, six were kits assembled atCSR Sifang Locomotive & Rolling Stock, and the remaining 51 were made in China using transferred technology with domestic and imported parts.[51] They are known asCRH2A. Alstom also won an order for 60 train sets based on theNew Pendolino developed by Alstom-Ferroviaria in Italy. The order had a similar delivery structure with three shipped directly fromSavigliano along with six kits assembled by CNR'sCRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles, and the rest locally made with transferred technology and some imported parts.[52] Trains with Alstom technology carry theCRH5 designation.
The following year, Siemens reshuffled its bidding team, lowered prices, joined the bidding for 350 km/h (217 mph) trains and won a 60-train set order.[46] It supplied the technology for theCRH3C, based on theICE3 (class 403) design, to CNR'sTangshan Railway Vehicle Co. Ltd. The transferred technology includes assembly, body, bogie, traction current transforming, traction transformers, traction motors, traction control, brake systems, and train control networks.
Between June and September 2005, theMOR launched bidding for high-speed trains capable of 350 km/h (217 mph), as most of the planned mainlines were designed for speeds of 350 km/h (217 mph) or higher. Alongside the CRH3C, produced by Siemens and CNR Tangshan, CSR Sifang bid to supply 60 sets of CRH2C.
At that time, China's only passenger-dedicated high-speed railway (PDL) was theQinhuangdao–Shenyang line, which began operating in 2003 at speeds of up to 250 km/h (155 mph) along the Liaoxi Corridor in theNortheast. This situation changed quickly as China embarked on a high-speed rail construction boom.
In 2007, the journey from Beijing to Shanghai still took about 10 hours, with upgraded tracks on theBeijing–Shanghai Railway allowing maximum speeds of only 200 km/h (124 mph). To expand capacity, the MOR ordered 70 16-car trainsets from CSR Sifang and Bombardier Sifang Transportation (BST).
A major turning point came with the launch of theBeijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, the first line in the world designed for 380 km/h (236 mph), which began construction on April 18, 2008. That same year, theMinistry of Science and the MOR introduced a joint action plan to foster indigenous innovation in high-speed trains. The MOR subsequently initiated three new train projects: the CRH1-350 (Bombardier and BST, later designatedCRH380D), CRH2-350 (CSR, laterCRH380A/AL), and CRH3-350 (CNR and Siemens, laterCRH380B/BL andCRH380CL). These represented a new generation of CRH trains with a top operating speed of 380 km/h (236 mph). In total, 400 of these trains were ordered. On October 26, 2010, the first high-speed train developed indigenously within the CRH series, theCRH380A/AL, entered service on theShanghai–Hangzhou High-Speed Railway.[53]
After committing to conventional-track high-speed rail in 2006, the government launched an ambitious campaign to build a nationwide network of passenger-dedicated lines. Rail construction spending grew rapidly, from $14 billion in 2004 to $22.7 billion in 2006 and $26.2 billion in 2007.[54] In response to theglobal financial crisis, this expansion was further accelerated as part of an economic stimulus program. Investments in new rail lines, including high-speed rail, reached $49.4 billion in 2008 and $88 billion in 2009.[54] At the time the government planned to invest $300 billion to construct a 25,000 km (16,000 mi) HSR network by 2020, an early that plan that would later be dramatically exceeded.[55][56]
China's ambitious high-speed rail development began with the 2004 "Mid-to-Long Term Railway Network Plan," establishing a national grid of eight corridors (four north–south, four east–west) totaling 12,000 km (7,456 mi).[57] TheHefei–Nanjing PDL opened April 19, 2008, followed by theBeijing–Tianjin intercity railway on August 1, 2008, featuring the first commercial 350 km/h (217 mph) service.[39] Major milestones included theWuhan–Guangzhou line (December 2009), which set a world record with average speeds of 312.5 km/h (194.2 mph), and theBeijing–Shanghai high-speed railway (June 2011), designed for 380 km/h (236 mph) operation.[58][59] By January 2011, China operated the world's longest high-speed network at 8,358 km (5,193 mi).[60]
In 2011, the program experienced a series of setbacks. Among others, railway MinisterLiu Zhijun was removed from his position for accepting ¥1 billion in bribes, while officialZhang Shuguang allegedly misappropriated $2.8 billion.[61][62][63] New MinisterSheng Guangzu reduced maximum speeds to 300 km/h (186 mph) amid safety and cost concerns.[64][65][66]
The July 23, 2011Wenzhou train collision proved catastrophic, killing 40 and injuring 192 when signal failures caused a rear-end collision.[67][68][69] The government suspended new approvals, conducted safety reviews, and further reduced speeds across the network.[70][71] Ridership plummeted from July to September 2011, dropping 151 million trips.[72]
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Financial pressures intensified as the MOR's debt reached ¥2.09 trillion (5% of GDP) by mid-2011.[73] Bank lending restrictions halted construction on 10,000 km (6,200 mi) of track, affecting major lines including Xiamen–Shenzhen and Shanghai–Kunming.[74] The government responded with tax cuts on financing bonds and ordered renewed bank lending, raising RMB 250 billion by late 2011.[75]
Recovery began in 2012 as the government renewed investments to stimulate the economy, increasing the MOR budget from $64.3 billion to $96.5 billion.[78] Five new lines totaling 2,563 km (1,593 mi) opened by year-end, extending the network to 9,300 km (5,800 mi).[79] By 2014, 1,580 high-speed trains carried 1.33 million daily passengers (25.7% of total rail traffic), with major lines like Beijing–Shanghai and Shanghai–Nanjing achieving profitability.[80][81] On December 28, 2013, China's high-speed rail network surpassed 10,000 km (6,200 mi) with the opening of several new lines.[82]
In 2014, high-speed rail expansion gained speed with the opening of theTaiyuan–Xi'an,Hangzhou–Changsha,Lanzhou-Ürümqi,Guiyang-Guangzhou,Nanning-Guangzhou trunk lines and intercity lines aroundWuhan,Chengdu,[83] Qingdao[84] and Zhengzhou.[84] High-speed passenger rail service expanded to 28provinces and regions.[85] The number of high-speed train sets in operation grew from 1,277 pairs in June to 1,556.5 pairs in December.[85][86]
In response to a slowing economy, central planners approved a slew of new lines includingShangqiu–Hefei–Hangzhou,[87]Zhengzhou–Wanzhou,[88]Lianyungang–Zhenjiang,[89]Linyi–Qufu,[90]Harbin–Mudanjiang,[91]Yinchuan–Xi'an,[87]Datong–Zhangjiakou,[87] and intercity lines in Zhejiang[92] and Jiangxi.[87]
The government actively promoted the export of high-speed rail technology to countries including Mexico, Thailand, the United Kingdom, India, Russia and Turkey. To better compete with foreign trainmakers, the central authorities arranged for the merger of the country's two main high-speed train-makers,CSR andCNR, intoCRRC.[93]
By 2015, six high speed rail lines, Beijing–Tianjin, Shanghai–Nanjing, Beijing–Shanghai, Shanghai–Hangzhou, Nanjing–Hangzhou and Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong were reporting operational profitability.[94] The Beijing–Shanghai was particularly profitable, reporting a 6.6 billion yuan net profit.[95]
In 2016, with the near completion of the National 4+4 grid, a new "Mid-to-Long Term Railway Network" Plan was drafted. The plan envisions a larger 8+8 high speed rail grid serving the nation and expanded intercity lines for regional and commuter services for largemetropolitan areas of China.[96] The proposed completion date for the network is 2030.[97]
Since 2017, with the introduction of theFuxing series of trains, a number of lines have resumed 350 km/h operations, such asBeijing–Shanghai HSR,Beijing–Tianjin ICR, andChengdu–Chongqing ICR.[98]
The HSR network reached 37,900 km (23,500 mi) in total length by the end of 2020.[99] In 2025, the HSR network will reach a total length of 50,000 km and is expected to grow further.[100]
China's high-speed rail program is designed to provide a fast, reliable, and comfortable mode of transport across one of the world's most densely populated countries.[101][102] Key policy objectives include:
As China's HSR network approaches 50,000 kilometers, mounting financial concerns have prompted policy reassessment. As of 2022, the China State Railway Group carries debt of approximately US$900 billion, with the system operating at a daily loss of US$24 million as of November 2021.[108]
Regional profitability varies significantly. While several high-speed railways in eastern China have achieved operational profitability since 2015, including the profitableBeijing-Shanghai High-Speed railway which generated CNY 29.6 billion in revenue and CNY 12.7 billion in net profit in 2017, most lines in central and western China operate at losses. TheZhengzhou–Xi'an high-speed railway,Guiyang–Guangzhou high-speed railway, andLanzhou–Xinjiang high-speed railway face particular challenges due to low ridership, harsh climate conditions, and high maintenance costs.[109]
Critics argue that overbuilding has created financial strain, with some lines and stations seeing minimal service or remaining unopened despite completed construction.[110][111] As China prepares its 2026-2030 five-year plan, analysts have questioned whether certain newly built lines meet central government construction standards, particularly given the country's greater need for freight capacity rather than passenger-only services.[112]
In response to these concerns, the government introduced stricter approval criteria in 2021, requiring new lines duplicating existing routes to demonstrate 80% capacity utilization on existing lines, and mandating that new high-speed lines serve cities with at least 15 million annual trips.[113]
China achieved relatively low construction costs through standardization of designs and procedures, with average costs of $17–21 million per kilometer according to a 2019 World Bank report—about one-third lower than other countries. Standardized train tracks, rolling stock, and signal systems, combined with bulk purchasing by state-owned corporations, helped keep costs down.[9]
Construction financing is highly capital intensive, with 40-50% provided by the national government through state-owned banks, 40% through Ministry of Railway bonds, and 10-20% by provincial and local governments.[114] The China Rail Investment Corp issued approximately ¥1 trillion (US$150 billion) in debt from 2006 to 2010 to finance HSR construction.[115]
Despite construction efficiency, most lines operate at losses initially. The Beijing-Tianjin intercity railway, for example, required several years to break even despite carrying over 41 million rides in its first two years, due to construction costs of ¥20.42 billion and annual operating costs of ¥1.8 billion including interest payments.[116] The line achieved profitability by 2015. However, many other lines continue to operate at losses, with deficits typically covered by subsidies from local governments.
Overall ridership continues growing as the network expands, and high-speed rail has become more affordable relative to wages. However, in 2016, high-speed rail revenue of ¥140.9 billion still fell short of interest payments of ¥156.8 billion on construction debt.[117] Experts have raised concerns about operational efficiency, noting that China's rail staff productivity index of less than 0.05 is the lowest among countries with significant railway construction, despite the network being one of the world's most intensively used for both freight and passenger service.[118]
A 2019 study by theWorld Bank Group found that HSR fares in China are low compared to other countries and have attracted passengers from all income levels. It noted that HSR is "very competitive" with bus and aircraft transport for distances between 150 km and 800 km (about 3 to 4 hours travel time). Due to both frequency and high speeds, services operating at 350 km/h (217 mph) remain competitive with air travel for journeys of up to 1,200 km.[9]
The expansion of high-speed rail has significantly reshaped China's domestic aviation market. Research by Cirium Ascend Consultancy in 2025 found that HSR has captured a dominant share of trips under 800 km (500 mi), where it is often faster and more convenient when total travel time from home to boarding is considered. On average, passengers in major Chinese cities save 35–45 minutes reaching and clearing security at HSR stations compared with airports, due to stations’ central locations, shorter access times, and quicker screening processes.[119] This competitive advantage has led to a structural decline in short-haul flights. According to Cirium data, flights of 800 km (500 mi) or less fell from 26.4% of all domestic flights in 2011 to 15.9% in early 2025. Overall flight volumes more than doubled in the same period with airlines shifting capacity to longer domestic routes, international services, and regions not yet served by high-speed rail, such as parts of western China.[119]
China's high-speed railway network is by far thelongest in the world. The HSR network reached 48,000 km (30,000 mi) in total length by the end of 2024, with plans to expand to 60,000 km (37,000 mi) by 2030.[120]
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The development of China's HSR network has been guided by the Medium- and Long-Term Railway Plan (MLTRP), first approved in 2004 with several major revisions.
The ambition of the program has constantly expanded over time through successive revisions:
The 2016 targets have been significantly exceeded, with the network reaching the original 2030 goal by several years. However, current official planning has de-emphasized the 2035 targets in favor of more immediate goals, with the focus shifting to achieving 60,000 km (37,000 mi) by 2030. As China prepares its next five-year plan covering 2026-2030, policymakers face decisions about whether to continue the rapid expansion pace amid growing financial sustainability concerns.[112]
HSR lines are generally classified into the following types, covering both the main national grid and additional regional and connecting lines:
There are also mixed-use connecting lines and upgraded conventional rail segments that allow high-speed trains to extend beyond dedicated HSR lines, operating at speeds of around 200 km/h (124 mph).
High-speed trains on dedicated HSR corridors can generally reach 300–350 km/h (190–220 mph). On mixed-use or regional lines, passenger services typically operate at peak speeds of 200–250 km/h (120–160 mph). Recent technological developments include maglev trains achieving test speeds over 600 km/h and new-generation bullet trains capable of 400 km/h, potentially reducing Beijing–Shanghai travel time from four hours to three.[112]
The centerpiece of China's HSR expansion is the national high-speed rail grid, which overlays mainly passenger-dedicated lines onto the existing railway network.
The original national HSR grid, known as the "4+4 grid," consisted of eight high-speed corridors—four north–south and four east–west—with a total length of 12,000 km (7,456 mi).[57] Most lines followed existing trunk routes and were designated for passenger traffic only, though some sections carried mixed passenger and freight services. This 4+4 grid was largely completed by 2015.
In July 2016, the network was reorganized into eight "vertical" (north–south) and eight "horizontal" (east–west) high-speed corridors, almost doubling the network.
Eight Verticals
Eight Horizontals
China Railway High-speed (CRH) is the high-speed rail service operated by state-ownedChina Railway, the national railway operator. Almost all high-speed rail lines, trainsets, and related services in China are owned and managed by China Railway under the CRH brand. The main exceptions are theShanghai Maglev Train, which is operated by theShentong Metro Group, and theGuangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link (XRL), which is jointly operated by China Railway and the Hong Kong-basedMTR Corporation.
Although both classified as high-speed rail, the Shanghai Maglev often is not counted as part of the national high-speed rail network, while XRL is fully integrated into the national network of the CRH. China has the world's only commercial maglev high-speed train line in operation. TheShanghai Maglev Train, aturnkeyTransrapidmaglev demonstration line 30.5 km (19.0 mi) long. The trains have a top operational speed of 430 km/h (267 mph) and can reach a top non-commercial speed of 501 km/h (311 mph). It opened for operations in March 2004, and transports passengers between Shanghai'sLongyang Road station andShanghai Pudong International Airport. There have been numerous attempts to extend the line without success. AShanghai-Hangzhou maglev line was also initially discussed but later shelved in favour of conventional high-speed rail.[122]
Two other Maglev lines, theChangsha Maglev and theLine S1 of Beijing, were designed for commercial operations with speeds lower than 120 km/h (75 mph).[123] TheFenghuang Maglev[124] opened in 2022 while theQingyuan Maglev is under construction.[125]
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China Railway reports the number of passengers carried by high-speed EMU train sets and this figure is frequently reported as high-speed ridership, even though this figure includes passengers from EMU trains providing sub-high speed service.[140] In 2007,CRH EMU trains running on conventional trackupgraded in the sixth round of the "Speed-up Campaign" carried 61 million passengers, before the country's first high-speed rail line, theBeijing–Tianjin intercity railway, opened in August 2008.
In 2018, China Railway operated 3,970.5 pairs of passenger train service, of which 2,775 pairs were carried by EMU train sets.[140] Of the 3.313 billion passenger-trips delivered by China Railway in 2018, EMU train sets carried 2.001 billion passenger-trips.[140] This EMU passenger figure includes ridership from certain D- and C-class trains that are technically not within the definition of high-speed rail in China, as well as ridership from EMU train sets serving routes on conventional track or routes that combine high-speed track and conventional track.[140] Nevertheless, by any measure, high-speed rail ridership in China has grown rapidly with expansion of the high-speed rail network and EMU service since 2008.
China is the third country, after Japan and France, to have one billion cumulative HSR passengers. In 2018, annual ridership on EMU train sets, which encompasses officially defined high-speed rail service as well as certain sub-high-speed service routes, accounted for about two-thirds of all regional rail trips (not includingurban trains) in China.[140] At the end of 2018, cumulative passengers delivered by EMU trains is reported to be over 9 billion.[140]
China's HSR network is regarded as one of the safest in the world.[141]: 70 The sole major accident to date was theWenzhou train collision of July 23, 2011, which killed 40 people and injured 172.[142] The incident, attributed to flaws in newly designed signaling equipment,[143] prompted safety reforms. Since then, operations have maintained an exemplary safety record.[144]
The "fastest" train commercial service can be defined alternatively by a train's top speed or average trip speed.
The trains G403/404 and G405/406 for theBeijing West (Beijingxi) -Kunming South (Kunmingnan) service (distance 2,760 km (1,710 mi), travel time about 10 1/2 hours), which began service on January 1, 2017, became the longesthigh-speed rail service in the world.[151] It overtook the G529/530 trains for theBeijing West -Beihai service (2,697 km (1,676 mi), 15 1/2 hours for southbound train, 15 3/4 hours for northbound train), which had set the previous record on July 1, 2016.[152]
Media related toHigh-speed rail in China at Wikimedia Commons
High-speed rail in China travel guide from WikivoyageMany multinational companies also resent China for tweaking foreign designs and building the equipment itself rather than importing it.
In the past few months, some foreign companies that sold China its high-speed technology said the trains were not designed to operate at 215 miles per hour. The ministry said that Chinese engineers had improved on the foreign technology and that the trains were safe at the higher speeds.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Media related toHigh-speed rail in China at Wikimedia Commons
