TheHexi Corridor (/həˈʃiː/hə-SHEE),[a] also known as theGansu Corridor, is an importanthistorical region located in the modern westernGansu province ofChina. It refers to a narrow stretch of traversable and relatively arableplain west of theYellow River'sOrdos Loop (hence the nameHexi, meaning 'west of the river'), flanked between the much more elevated and inhospitable terrains of theMongolian andTibetan Plateaus.
The Hexi Corridor is located in western Gansu Province. It stretches roughly 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) from theWushao Mountains in the east toYumen Pass in the west, 100–200 kilometres (60–100 mi) from north to south, ranges from 40–100 kilometres (20–60 mi) in width, and covers an area of approximately 276,000 square kilometres (107,000 sq mi) or around 60% of the area of Gansu Province. Its population was 4.82 million people in 2011, representing around 19% of the province's total population. As of 2024, the corridor contains 20 administrative divisions and fiveprefecture-level cities, which are, from east to west:Wuwei,Jinchang,Zhangye,Jiuquan, andJiayuguan.[1][2][3]
The elevation of the Hexi Corridor descends from around 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) above sea level in the southeast to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in the northwest,[3] and is internally divided by threeuplifts into fourintermontanebasins.[4] It is bordered by the Qilian Mountains in the south and southeast, theKumtag Desert to the west, theMazong,Helan, andLongshou Mountains to the north, theBadain Jaran Desert to the northeast, and theTengger Desert to the southeast.[5][6] TheQilian Mountains run south of the Hexi Corridor for 600 kilometres (370 mi) and contain several peaks exceeding 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) above sea level, while the mountains to the north generally range from 1,500–2,500 metres (4,900–8,200 ft) in height.[4]
Three major inland rivers flow through the Hexi Corridor: theShiyang,Heihe, andShule rivers. These rivers originate from the melting ofglaciers and snow in the Qilian Mountain and form extensivealluvialfans and inlanddrainage basins in their lower reaches, beyond which lie deserts and largesand dune fields. Arable land in the Hexi Corridor mainly consists of regions around theoases that form in the deserts and around the rivers, which have supported both nomadic populations and settled civilizations for millennia.[7][8][9]
The oldest knownbronze object discovered in China, dating to 5000–4500 BP, was unearthed at the Majiayao site.[16] The introduction of copper-smelting technology around 4200 BP marked the beginning of theBronze Age in the Hexi Corridor,[17][18] and bronze production reached its peak between 4000 and 3500 BP.[19] Bronze artifacts from the Hexi Corridor dating to this period account for approximately 70 percent of all bronze objects found in China prior to theShang dynasty.[20] During this time, domesticatedlivestock were introduced to the region,[21] so local cultures such as theShajing,Qijia,Xichengyi,Siba, andShanma developed agricultural economies based on smelting copper, cultivating millet, and herding animals such as sheep, pigs, cattle, and horses.[22][23]
Wheat andbarley from theFertile Crescent arrived in the Hexi Corridor via Central Asia around 4000 BP,[24][25][26] and later spread intoChina proper.[27] By around 3700–3500BP, most likely due to the continual weakening and retreat of theEast Asian monsoon since 4000BP which had caused increasingaridity,[28][29] the more drought-resistant wheat and barley had replaced millet as the main staple crop in the Hexi Corridor.[30][25][31] Cultures after this time period (such as the Shajing culture) saw a decrease in site numbers and bronze artifacts,[32][33][34] and became dominated by nomadic production rather than agriculture.[35][36]
During theHan-Xiongnu Wars, Han dynasty generalHuo Qubing expelled the Xiongnu from the Hexi Corridor at theBattle of Hexi [zh] (121BCE).[45][46] The province ofLiangzhou was created with its capital at Guzang (modernWuwei City), within which thecommanderies of Wuwei,Zhangye,Jiuquan andDunhuang (the Four Commanderies of Hexi) were established.[46][47][48] This gave the Han dynasty control over major trade routes to Central Asia and is regarded by most scholars as the beginning of theSilk Road.[49][50][51] Agricultural garrison towns were established in the Hexi Corridor to secure the route and the Great Wall was extended toYumen Pass 80 kilometres (50 mi) west of Dunhuang.[52][53][54] Additionally, the Han dynasty's acquisition of the Hexi Corridor allowed them to conquer theTarim Basin and establish theProtectorate of the Western Regions in 60BCE,[55][56] and proved instrumental in defeating the Xiongnu as it prevented contact between them and the Qiang.[57][58]
Ruins of the Big Fangpan Castle atYumen Pass, the western end of the Han-eraGreat Wall.
Following the collapse of the interregnumXin dynasty in 23CE, the Hexi Corridor was settled by large numbers of Qiang people and came under the control of warlordDou Rong [zh], who submitted to the reinstatedEastern Han dynasty in 29CE.[59][60][61] In the 2nd century CE, millions of Han settlers withdrew from the Hexi Corridor when the Qiang began to raid the region.[62][63][64] The Yuezhi, Xiongnu, and Qiang instigated theLiangzhou Rebellion in 184, which largely isolated the Hexi Corridor from central control and contributed to the fall of the Han dynasty.[65][66][67] By theend of the Han dynasty, the Hexi Corridor was occupied by warlordsHan Sui,Ma Teng andMa Chao.[68][69] In 214, warlordCao Cao conquered the region and incorporated it into his state ofCao Wei.[70]
Cao Cao's sonCao Pi of Wei deposed the Han dynasty in 220, marking the start of theThree Kingdoms era.[71][72] In 230, rival Three Kingdoms stateShu Han attacked the Hexi Corridor as part ofZhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions.[73] In 266, Cao Wei became theJin dynasty, which inherited the Hexi Corridor.[74][75] In 270, theXianbei, related to the Xiongnu, begana rebellion in the region which lasted until 279.[76] Starting in the late 3rd century, groups such as theKushans (descended from the Yuezhi) andSogdians established a widespread presence in the Hexi Corridor as merchants along the Silk Road.[77][78] These groups contributed significantly to the spread of belief systems such asBuddhism into the Hexi Corridor.[79][80][81]
The state ofFormer Liang was founded in the Hexi Corridor in the early 4th century, and became the longest-lasting and most politically stable of the Sixteen Kingdoms.[82][83] In 376, Former Liang was conquered byFormer Qin; various parts of the Hexi Corridor then came under the control ofLater Liang in 386,Southern andNorthern Liang in 397, andWestern Liang in 400, before reunifying under Northern Liang in 421.[84][85] During this period, the Hexi Corridor was spared from much of the turmoil of theCentral China Plains, which caused increased migration to the region and led to it becoming a centre of culture in China.[86][87][88] Buddhist culture and activity flourished in the region; the first of theMogao Caves were constructed during this time,[89] and the extensive creation of Buddhist artworks and translation of texts at this time directly contributed to the adoption of the religion in the rest of China.[90][91]
In 439,Northern Wei conquered Northern Liang and ended the Sixteen Kingdoms era, though the final Northern Liang stronghold at Dunhuang remained until 442.[92][93] A garrison was then established at Dunhuang to defend against theRouran and significant numbers of civilians were moved from the Hexi Corridor to the Wei capital atPingcheng, promoting the readoption of classical Chinese culture and spread of Buddhism in the Central Plains.[88][94][95] In the 470s, the Northern Wei government considered abandoning the Hexi Corridor due to repeated raids by the Rouran. They later defeated the Rouran in 492, although the region remained largely desolate into the early 6th century.[96][97] After the fall of Northern Wei, the Hexi Corridor came into the control ofWestern Wei in 535, which becameNorthern Zhou in 557.[98][99]
A map showing the Hexi Corridor under Tibetan control in the late 780s.
In 581, Northern Zhou became theSui dynasty,[100] which later reunitedChina Proper for the first time in three centuries.[101][102] In 609,Emperor Yang of Sui toured the region and personally commanded an expedition against theTuyuhun to protect its trade routes.[103][104] WarlordLi Gui seized control of the Hexi Corridor in 617 and proclaimed himself ruler of Liang, which was conquered by the newly-foundedTang dynasty in 619.[105][106] In 627, Buddhist monkXuanzang passed through the Hexi Corridor on his way to India.[107][108]
Between 630 and 657, the Tang dynasty conquered territories from several Central Asian states to secure the Hexi Corridor and consolidate control over the Silk Road.[109][110] The renewed stability encouraged trade and cultural exchange; goods as well as religions such asZoroastrianism,Nestorian Christianity, andIslam spread through the region into central China, and cities in the Hexi Corridor became increasingly cosmopolitan.[111] This expansion also brought the Tang into conflict with theTibetan Empire, which began encroaching on the Hexi Corridor around 670.[112][113] In 711, the Hexi Corridor was organised under a military governor (jiedushi) as one of nine frontier commands of the Tang dynasty,[114] which by 742 possessed a quarter of all horses in the empire and represented its third-largest military force.[115]
One of several murals at the Mogao Caves commissioned by generalZhang Yichao's successors depicting his victory over Tibetan forces.[116]
Tang forces were withdrawn from the Hexi Corridor following the outbreak of theAn Lushan Rebellion in 755 and the Tibetan Empire gradually occupied the region, culminating in their capture of Dunhuang in 786 and the rest of the Hexi Corridor in the 790s.[117][118] Following this, residents of the region adopted various Tibetan customs such as the use of Tibetan names and theTibetan script, which continued even after the Tang dynasty reasserted control.[119] Tibetan influence in the Hexi Corridor during this period led to the spread ofTibetan Buddhist culture to the rest of Eurasia, where it remained a dominant culture into the early 20th century.[120][121]
The Tibetan Empire collapsed in 842;[122] the Hexi Corridor was then seized by warlordZhang Yichao in 848, who established the Tang-loyalGuiyi Circuit in 851.[123][124] The Guiyi Circuit reunified the Hexi Corridor and reached its greatest extent in the 860s.[125] Its power and territory then steadily declined under pressure from twoUyghur states: theQocho Kingdom in the Tarim Basin to the west and theGanzhou Uyghur Kingdom to the east,[126] which was founded after the Guiyi Circuit lost control of its eastern provinces in the 880s.[127]
By the early 10th century, the Guiyi Circuit was confined to the area surrounding Dunhuang, and was almost completely isolated from the rest of China by the Ganzhou Uyghurs' seizure of goods along the Silk Road.[128][129] In 911, the Guiyi Circuit became a vassal of the Ganzhou Uyghurs and reopened the Silk Road in 925.[130][131] After this, Dunhuang once again became a centre of culture in the region;[132] some of the largest temples at the Mogao Caves were constructed during this time, and Buddhist texts produced at Dunhuang were freely distributed to the Ganzhou and Qocho kingdoms. This revival was partly driven and financed by the diplomatic relations that the three states maintained with one another and with the dominant dynasties of the Central Plains.[133][134]
The timeline of the Hexi Corridor's conquest by theTangut-ledWestern Xia dynasty remains somewhat unclear, with Western Xia likely beginning its invasion in 1028 and completing the conquest in 1036.[135] However, a state (possibly the Guiyi Circuit or a Uyghur kingdom) in the vicinity of Dunhuang may have remained independent until at least 1052, though the Tanguts controlled the entire region by the 1070s.[136][137] After the conquest of the Hexi Corridor, large numbers of civilians were mobilized for a campaign against theSong dynasty and the region's trade routes were increasingly bypassed by merchants, leading to a decline in the region's prosperity.[138][139]
In 1205, theMongol Empire underGenghis Khan plundered the Hexi Corridor in the first oftheir attacks on Western Xia; this was followed in 1209 by a full-scale invasion launched through the corridor which led to Western Xia's submission as a vassal in 1210.[140] Genghis Khan invaded once again in 1225, conquering the entire Hexi Corridor in 1226 and the rest of Western Xia in 1227, the year of his death.[141]
The Great Wall east of Jiayu Pass, constructed 1539–1541 during the Ming dynasty.[143]
In 1370, the newly-establishedMing dynasty seized the eastern section of the Hexi Corridor from the Mongols and captured most of the remaining territory in 1372.[144][145] Later that same year, they constructedJiayu Pass 15 kilometres (9 mi) east of Dunhuang,[143] which left the city under the control of theNorthern Yuan dynasty and led to it largely being abandoned.[146][147] By this point, the Hexi Corridor had largely lost its importance as a major trade route.[148]
Like the Han dynasty over a millennium prior, the Ming dynasty established garrison towns along the frontier shortly after their conquest of the region.[149][150] In 1524, Jiayu Pass was closed and Dunhuang was occupied by theTurfan Khanate.[151] The Ming dynasty rebuilt the Great Wall through the Hexi Corridor from 1539–1541 and added an extension in 1573.[143]
In 1644, the Hexi Corridor was briefly seized by the short-livedShun dynasty untilQing forces under generalAjige defeated them in 1645.[152] In 1648, Muslim rebels led byMilayin [zh] occupied most of Gansu and retreated west to the Hexi Corridor in June of that year, where the rebels held out against Qing generalsMeng Qiaofang [zh] andZhang Yong [zh] in the cities of Ganzhou (Zhangye) and Suzhou (Jiuquan) until 1649.[153][154] After the Qing victory, 5,000 rebels were executed and Muslims in the Hexi Corridor were resettled away from major cities.[148][154] Between 1674 and 1676, the Hexi Corridor was isolated from the rest of the Qing dynasty during theRevolt of the Three Feudatories, in which Zhang Yong and his lieutenants played a major role in its suppression.[155][156]
Thousands of soldiers and farmers were settled in the Hexi Corridor to cultivate the land in the 1720s as part of a defensive system designed to isolate theDzungar Khanate from Kokonor (Qinghai),[157] wherea Dzungar uprising had been quelled.[158] By the 1750s, yields of millet and wheat, the region's two main crops, had become so high that the Qing dynasty frequently redistributed its harvest across the empire to stabilize grain prices and alleviate famines.[159]
Most of the Hexi Corridor fell to Muslim rebels in 1865 during theDungan Revolt, which triggered further revolts inXinjiang.[160] In 1873, GeneralZuo Zongtang laid siege to Jiuquan with 15,000 soldiers, and attacked its walls with siege guns and explosives. More than 7,000 Muslims were executed after the city's capture, and the remaining Muslims in the Hexi Corridor were resettled to southeastern Gansu to prevent future collaboration with Muslims in Xinjiang.[161][162]
In 1907, archaeologistAurel Stein explored the Hexi Corridor, where he rediscovered treasures such as the Mogao Caves and a collection of ancient Sogdian letters in Dunhuang.[163][164]
TheLanzhou–Xinjiang railway, which runs through the Hexi Corridor, began construction in 1952 and opened in 1963.[167] In 1987, the Mogao Caves were listed as aUNESCO World Heritage Site.[168] TheLanzhou–Xinjiang high-speed railway, also passing through the Hexi Corridor, began construction in 2009 and opened in 2014.[169] In 2025, the Chinese government announced a plan to construct a 1,000 km (620 mi) "national heritage route" along the Hexi Corridor, which is expected to be completed in ten years.[170][171]
The Hexi Corridor is a long, narrow passage stretching for some 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the steepWushaolin hillside near the modern city ofLanzhou to theJade Gate[172] at the border of Gansu andXinjiang. There are many fertile oases along the path, watered by rivers flowing from theQilian Mountains, such as theShiyang,Jinchuan,Ejin (Heihe), andShule Rivers.
A strikingly inhospitable environment surrounds this chain of oases: the snow-cappedQilian Mountains (the so-called "southern mountains" or "Nanshan") to the south; theBeishan ("northern mountains") mountainous area, theAlashan Plateau, and the vast expanse of theGobi desert to the north.
The ancienttrackway formerly passed throughHaidong,Xining and the environs ofJuyan Lake, serving an effective area of about 215,000 km2 (83,000 sq mi). It was an area where mountain and desert limited caravan traffic to a narrowtrackway, where relatively small fortifications could control passing traffic.[174]
There are several major cities along the Hexi Corridor. In westernGansu Province isDunhuang (Shazhou), thenYumen, thenJiayuguan, thenJiuquan (Suzhou), thenZhangye (Ganzhou) in the center, thenJinchang, thenWuwei (Liangzhou) and finallyLanzhou in the southeast. In the past, Dunhuang was part of the area known as theWestern Regions. South of Gansu Province, in the middle just over the provincial boundary, lies the city ofXining, the capital ofQinghai Province. Xining used to be the chief commercial hub of the Hexi Corridor.
The Jiayuguan fort guards the western entrance to China. It is located inJiayuguan pass at the narrowest point of the Hexi Corridor, some 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) southwest of the city ofJiayuguan. The Jiayuguan fort is the first fortification ofGreat Wall of China in the west.
^Dong, Liang & Zhang 2024, p. 4: "Millet farmers settled in the northeast Tibetan Plateau and the Hexi Corridor during 5500–4300 BP, with broomcorn and foxtail millet being the primary crops in these two regions, respectively".
^abDong et al. 2017, p. 627: "The data indicate that millet farmers had settled in the Hexi Corridor by 4800 BP, with the production of painted pottery that originated from north China".
^Dong et al. 2017, p. 622: "The Neolithic of the Hexi Corridor consists of three types of the Majiayao culture: the Majiayao (5000–4600 BP), Banshan (4600–4300 BP), and Machang (4300–4000 BP)".
^Chen et al. 2020, p. 954: "In this context, the Hexi Corridor is again at the heart of the discussion [...] It is within this region that archaeologists discovered the oldest bronze object so far in China (c.5000–4500 bp at the Majiayao site)".
^Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "After 4200 cal BP, the Qijia and Siba Cultures, which had copper smelting technology, prevailed in this region. Prosperous Bronze Age agriculture in the Hexi Corridor appears to have terminated suddenly around 3500-3400 cal BP".
^Dong et al. 2017, p. 625, Material evidence in the context of prehistoric transcontinental exchange.
^Zhang et al. 2017, p. 94: To date, archaeologists have unearthed more than 300 bronze artifacts and copper smelting artifacts from Qijia, Xichengyi and Siba culture archaeological sites. In total, these artifacts account for around 70% of the number of unearthed bronze artifacts in China before Shang Dynasty.
^Ren et al. 2022, p. 6: "The dispersal of domestic cattle and caprines along the Chinese Oasis route, including through the Hexi Corridor, probably occurred later than that of the more northern grassland route. Specifically, domestic cattle and sheep/goats may not have been introduced to the Hexi Corridor until ∼4000 BP".
^Zhou et al. 2012, pp. 46–47: "The prosperity of Bronze Age agricultural societies in the Hexi Corridor persisted from ca. 4200 to 3500 cal BP, and was characterised by agro-pastoralist societies that kept livestock including pig, sheep, cattle and horse, while also producing bronze objects of alloyed copper, arsenic and tin".
^Dong et al. 2017, p. 623: "Charred seeds of wheat, barley, foxtail, and broomcorn millet are all identified from Huoshiliang and other Bronze sites in the central Hexi Corridor. This implies that wheat had been introduced to the Hexi Corridor region by at least the early fourth millennium BP".
^abLi et al. 2023, p. 1: "Archaeobotanical and stable isotope evidence suggests that wheat and barley were introduced into the Hexi Corridor and northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in 4000 BP, rapidly replacing millets as primary staple crops after 3700 BP".
^Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "But the increasing climate aridity between ca. 4000 and 3500 cal BP, which was induced by a weakening of the Asian monsoon, is the underlying cause for the shrinking of arable land and vegetation degradation in Hexi Corridor, and this is the likely cause for the decrease of the agricultural activities and collapse of the Bronze Age societies in Hexi Corridor".
^Yang et al. 2020, p. 615: "During~2800–2000 BC, people in the Hexi Corridor adopted a sedentary lifestyle, cultivating millet and raising pigs, sheep/goats, cattle, and dogs. Moreover, they began to cultivate wheat and barley beginning ~2000 BC. By ~2000–1000 BC, the strategy had shifted to semi-sedentary agro-pastoral production, based on the utilization of sheep/goats,pigs, cattle, dogs, and horses. During ~1000–200 BC, wheat and naked barley replaced millet as the major crops".
^Dong, Liang & Zhang 2024, p. 7: "However, wheat and barley were adopted as important staple in the Hexi Corridor and the northeast Tibetan Plateau during 4000–3600 BP, respectively. This may be due to their adaptability to different altitude environments of these two regions, especially, barley is tolerant to low cumulative temperatures and precipitation, making it well-suited for successful growth in colder climates".
^Zhang et al. 2017, pp. 93–94: The number of bronze artifacts and sites with smelting relics reached a maximum during Xichengyi (4000–3700 BP), Qijia (4000–3500 BP) and Siba (3700–3400 BP) Bronze Age cultures period, but diminished substantially during Shanma (3000–2400 BP) and Shajing (2800–2400 BP) cultures..
^Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "The subsequent Shajing cultures show evidence of cultural retrogression and site numbers are low until the rise of nomadic tribes after 3000 cal BP".
^Yang et al. 2020, p. 616: "The agricultural culture was entirely replaced by a pastoral culture, and the numbers of archaeological sites of the subsequent Shajing and Shanma Cultures are significantly smaller than that of the Siba Culture. During the subsequent millennium, Human settlement in the Hexi Corridor remained low, especially during 1350–950 BC".
^Li et al. 2023, Abstract: "In contrast, the Shajing Culture flourished along the lower Shiyang River with the retreat of the Zhuye Lake, the Xiongnu Empire established the city of Xiutu along the Hongshui River, which experienced downcutting linked to the arid environment, and a nomadic culture emerged against the backdrop of drought in the Shiyang River Basin".
^Reden 2020, p. 76: "Prior to their migration into Bactria, the history of the Yuezhi is only tenuously known from Chinese historical sources, which place their earliest known home in the Gansu corridor".
^Kim 2017, p. 1: "At its height, the Xiongnu Empire stretched from the forests of Manchuria in the east to the territory of the Kangju (southern Kazakhstan and northern Uzbekistan) in the west, from the Baikal region (southern Siberia) in the north to the Ordos and Gansu regions of northern China in the south".
^Declercq 2025, pp. 24-25: "The Yuezhi having been disposed of, the Hexi Corridor — from 176 BCE and for as long as the Han heqin policy lasted (134 BCE) — was undisputedly under Xiongnu control".
^Bielenstein 1986, p. 276: "The other powerful man was Tou Jung, another northwesterner. He had from A.D. 24 onward become warlord of the Kansu corridor, and recognized Kuang-wu-ti in 29".
^Declercq 2025, p. 48: "Qiang bands pillaged Wuwei, Zhangye and Jiuquan, sometimes even Dunhuang, in 120, 141, 160, 162, 163 ("Liangzhou was almost lost!"), 166, 167, etc".
^Twitchett 1979, p. 48: "In the last quarter of the sixth century, China had been politically fragmented for nearly three hundred years - the longest period of disunion in Chinese history. The Sui dynasty brought this period to an end".
^Liu 2022, p. 27: "When Yang Jian, Emperor Wen set up the Sui Dynasty, he reunited China and ended the separation between south and north for over 3 centuries".
^Rong & Galambos 2013, p. 32: "In 617 Li Gui 李軌 gathered an army in Wuwei and proclaimed himself King of Liang, bringing Hexi under his control. After the Tang dynasty was established in Chang'an, in 619 the court relied on the powerful Sogdian An 安 clan to destroy Li Gui's rule from the inside. With this, Hexi was annexed to the Tang domain".
^Xiong 2006, p. 260: "Seventh month [of 617]: Officer Li Gui rebelled in Wuwei, and declared himself prince of Liang".
^Rong & Galambos 2013, p. 32: "Hence when Xuanzang 玄奘 was starting on his pilgrimage to the West in 627, he left the empire in secret between Guazhou and Dunhuang.".
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