Heterosexism is a system ofattitudes,bias, anddiscrimination in favor ofheterosexuality and heterosexual relationships.[1] According to Elizabeth Cramer, it can include the belief that all people are or should beheterosexual and that heterosexual relationships are the onlynorm[2] and therefore superior.
Although heterosexism is defined in the online editions of theAmerican Heritage Dictionary of the English Language and theMerriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary as anti-gaydiscrimination or prejudice "by heterosexual people"[3] and "by heterosexuals",[4] respectively, people of anysexual orientation can hold such attitudes and bias, and can form a part ofinternalised hatred of one's sexual orientation.[5]
Heterosexism as discrimination ranksgay men,lesbians,bisexuals and other sexual minorities assecond-class citizens with regard to various legal andcivil rights, economic opportunities, andsocial equality in many of the world's jurisdictions and societies. It is often related tohomophobia.
While theMerriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary notes the first use of the term heterosexism as having occurred in 1972, the term was first published in 1971 bygay rights activist,Craig Rodwell.[6]
Similar terms include "heterocentrism" and "heterosexualism".[7] Although the well-established termheterosexism is often explained as acoinage modeled onsexism, the derivation of its meaning points more to (1.)heterosex(ual) +-ism than (2.)hetero- +sexism.
Given this lack ofsemantic transparency, researchers, outreach workers,critical theorists andLGBTQ activists have proposed and use terms such asinstitutionalized homophobia,state(-sponsored) homophobia,[8]sexual prejudice,anti-gaybigotry,straight privilege,The Straight Mind (a collection of essays by French writerMonique Wittig),heterosexual bias,compulsory heterosexuality[9] or the much lesser known termsheterocentrism,homonegativity, and fromgender theory andqueer theory,heteronormativity. However, not all of these descriptors are synonymous withheterosexism.
Homophobia, a form of heterosexism, refers both to "unreasoning fear of orantipathy towards homosexuals and homosexuality"[10] and to "behavior based on such a feeling".[11]Heterosexism, however, more broadly denotes the "system of ideological thought that makes heterosexuality the sole norm to follow for sexual practices".[12] As a bias favoring heterosexuals and heterosexuality, heterosexism has been described as being "encoded into and characteristic of the major social, cultural, and economic institutions of our society"[13] and stems from theessentialist cultural notion thatmaleness-masculinity and femaleness-femininity are complementary.
Psychology professor Gregory M. Herek states that "[Heterosexism] operates through a dual process of invisibility and attack. Homosexuality usually remains culturally invisible; when people who engage in homosexual behavior or who are identified as homosexual become visible, they are subject to attack by society."[14] Furthermore, in interviews with perpetrators ofanti-gay violence,forensic psychologist Karen Franklin believes that "heterosexism is not just a personalvalue system, [rather] it is a tool in the maintenance ofgender dichotomy."[15] She continues by saying that "assaults on homosexuals and other individuals who deviate fromsex role norms are viewed as a learned form ofsocial control of deviance rather than a defensive response to personal threat."[15]
Using the term heterosexism highlights the parallels between antigay sentiment and other forms of prejudice, such asracism,antisemitism, andsexism.
— Gregory M. Herek, researcher, author, and professor of psychology atUC Davis.[14]
It has been argued that the concept of heterosexism is similar to the concept ofracism in that both ideas promote privilege for dominant groups within a given society. For example, borrowing from the racial concept ofwhite privilege, the concept ofheterosexual privilege[16] has been applied to benefits of (presumed) heterosexuality within society that heterosexuals take for granted. The analogy is that just as racism against non-white people places white people as superior topeople of color, heterosexism places heterosexual people or relationships as superior tonon-heterosexual ones. In trying to rebut this premise, some commentators point to differences[17] between the categories of race and sexual orientation, claiming they are too complex to support any generalizations. For example, "trainer on diversity" and consultant Jamie Washington has commented, although heterosexism and racism are "woven from the same fabric" they are "not the same thing".[18] Some American Conservative leaders such as Rev.Irene Monroe comment that those who suggest or state "gay is the new black", as in a cover story ofThe Advocate magazine,[19] exploitblack people's suffering and experiences to legitimize their own.[20] Nonetheless, a study presented at theBritish Psychological Society's Division of Occupational Psychology 2009 Conference shows that heterosexist prejudice is more pervasive than racism.[21]
Heterosexism can alsointersect with racism by further emphasizing differences among arbitrary groups of people.[22] For example, heterosexism can compound the effects of racism by:
Likewise, racism can allow LGBT people to be subjected to additional discrimination or violence if they belong to or are considered a part of a socially devalued racial category.[23] Some of the privileges afforded to people falling into the categories of white people and (perceived) heterosexuals include, but are not limited to, social acceptance, prestige, freedom from negativestereotypes, and the comfort of being within thesocial norm and thereby not beingmarginalized or viewed as different.[24]
Heterosexism as a set of beliefs and attitudes relies on a core tenet according to whichhomosexuality and bisexuality do not normally exist and, as such, constitutemental illnesses ordeviant behaviors.[25] Within a heterosexist ideology ormindset, the concept ofsexual orientation is rejected or deemed irrelevant. A set of more nuanced heterosexist views, which some may consider faith,dogma,universal truths, natural law,appeals to authority, or popular beliefs, but others consider to beconventional wisdom orsociobiological knowledge can include, among others, the following:
In an attempt to bring awareness to people who exhibit heterosexist views but are possibly not aware of it, Mark Rochlin constructed a set of questions in 1977 which are questions that non-heterosexual people are often exposed to, but not heterosexuals, such as "What do you think caused your sexuality?" This heterosexuality questionnaire is often distributed around college campuses to bring awareness of heterosexist sexual prejudice against LGBT persons.[26]
As well as comprising attitudes held by an individual or a social group, heterosexism can also exist as the expression of attitudes within an institution. As a result, schools, hospitals, and correctional facilities can act as a showcase for heterosexist attitudes in various ways. First, schools may implement these attitudes and ideas through unequal and inconsistent disciplinary actions. One such example is meting out harsher punishment to a same-sex couple violating the school ground rules while allowing a heterosexual couple to pass with a more lenient disciplinary action for an equal or identical violation. Also, hospitals may limit patient visiting only to immediate family, i.e., relatives, and exclude same-sex partners.[27]
Heterosexism affects the family in several ways. For example, in many countries around the world,same-sex marriage is not allowed, so non-heterosexual persons must remain unmarried or enter into heterosexual marriage.[28] Many countries also deny rights and benefits to same-sex couples, including custodial and adoption rights for children, Social Security benefits,automatic durable power of attorney, and hospital spousal rights.[28]
Psychologists have aimed to measure heterosexism using various methods. One particular method involves the use of aLikert scale. However, since heterosexism is perceived as something that is unseen, it is difficult to determine if someone is heterosexist based on aself-report method. Researchers, thus, have constructed implicit measurements of heterosexism. An example of this would be anImplicit Association Test. A popular implicit association test measuring heterosexism that is open to the public is a virtual laboratory calledProject Implicit.
One limitation present in research on heterosexism is that there often is not a distinction between homophobia and heterosexism. Individuals are more likely to be aware of homophobic tendencies rather than heterosexist views; thus, researchers often measure homophobia instead of heterosexism.[29]
Research on heterosexism has focused on variables that may affect views of heterosexism. For instance, in a study by psychologist,Gregory M. Herek, it was found that there was a gender difference between heterosexual attitudes toward lesbians and gay men.[30] Specifically, the study reveals that heterosexual individuals all seem to have some heterosexist tendency, however, heterosexual males have a greater tendency than heterosexual females to exhibit negative attitudes towards non-heterosexual individuals (this includes gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals). Another notable finding of Herek's study was that heterosexual males showed a greater tendency to demonstrate hostility towards gay men rather than lesbians.[30] Other factors that Herek acknowledges to contribute to heterosexism include individual differences, religiosity, conforming to social norms,right-wing authoritarianism, customs and beliefs regarding cultural tradition, and personal experience with non-heterosexual individuals.[30] Research has also recognized the effects of level of education on views of heterosexism.[31] Wright et al. revealed that higher levels of education, or having more years of education, is related to less homophobic tendencies.[31]
This type of heterosexism includesanti-gay laws, policies, and institutional practices, harassment based on sexual orientation or perceived sexual orientation;stereotyping, discriminatory language and discourse, and other forms ofdiscrimination against LGBT persons such as:
This form of heterosexism operates through invisibility, under-representation, anderasure. It includes:
Heterosexism causes a range of effects on people of any sexual orientation. However, the main effects of heterosexism are marginalization, and anti-LGBT violence and abuse.[citation needed]
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The main effect of heterosexism is themarginalization of gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals within society. Heterosexism has led tostigmatization and persecution of not only these people but also those of othersexual diversity such as transgender, andtranssexual people. Along withhomophobia,lesbophobia, andinternalized homophobia, heterosexism continues to be a significant social reality that compels people to conceal their homosexual or bisexual orientation, or metaphorically, to remain inthe closet in an effort topass for heterosexual.
Marginalization also occurs when marriage rights are heterosexist. More specifically, when marriage rights are exclusive to female–male couples, all same-sex couples, be they gay, lesbian, straight or mixed, are prevented from enjoying marriage's corresponding legal privileges, especially those regarding property rights, health benefits, and child custody. Moreover, such limitation prevents same-sex couples from receiving the inherent social respect of marriage and its cultural symbolism.
Yolanda Dreyer, professor of practical theology atUniversity of Pretoria, has stated that "Heterosexism leads to prejudice, discrimination, harassment, andviolence. It is driven by fear and hatred (Dreyer 5)."[36] Along the same lines, forensic psychologist Karen Franklin explains violence caused by heterosexism toward both men and women, regardless of their sexual orientations:[15]
[T]hrough heterosexism, any male who refuses to accept the dominant culture's assignment of appropriate masculine behavior is labeled early on as a "sissy" or "fag" and then subjected tobullying. Similarly, any woman who opposes male dominance and control can be labeled a lesbian and attacked. The potential of being ostracized as homosexual, regardless of actual sexual attractions and behaviors, puts pressure on all people to conform to a narrow standard of appropriate gender behavior, thereby maintaining and reinforcing our society's hierarchical gender structure.
Another form of heterosexist violence associal control that most often targets lesbian women iscorrective rape: agang rape of a lesbian to "cure" her of her same-sex attractions. A notorious example from South Africa is the corrective rape and murder ofEudy Simelane,LGBT-rights activist and member of thewomen's national football team.[37]
According to a Frontline article titled "Inside the Mind of People Who Hate Gays", bias-related violence against homosexuals is believed to be widespread in the United States, with perpetrators typically described by victims as young men in groups who assault targets of convenience. Victims accounts suggest that assailants possess tremendous rage and hatred; indeed, documentation of horrific levels of brutality has led gay activists to characterize the violence as political terrorism aimed at all gay men and lesbians. Other motives for antigay violence suggested in the literature include male bonding, proving heterosexuality, and purging secret homosexual desires.[38]
According to an article in theHoward Journal of Communications, some LGBT individuals have responded to heterosexism through direct confrontation and communication, or through the removal of self from the hostile environment.[39]
The definition for heterosexism that I used for authors in the collection is: The expectation that all persons should be or are heterosexual. The belief that heterosexual relations are normal and the norm. These expectations and beliefs occur on individual, institutional, and cultural levels. ...
Aaron Fricke decided he wanted to go to his senior prom with Paul Guilbert. His principal wouldn't let him.
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