Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, particularly the accepted beliefs orreligious law of a religious organization.[1][2] Aheretic is a proponent of heresy.[1]
Heresy is distinct fromapostasy, which is the explicit renunciation of one's religion, principles or cause;[4] and fromblasphemy, which is an impious utterance or action concerning God or sacred things.[5]Heresiology is the study of heresy.
Derived fromAncient Greekhaíresis (αἵρεσις), the Englishheresy originally meant "choice" or "thing chosen".[6] However, it came to mean the "party, or school, of a man's choice",[7] and also referred to that process whereby a young person would examine various philosophies to determine how to live.[citation needed]
The wordheresy is usually used within a Christian, Jewish, or Islamic context, and implies slightly different meanings in each. The founder or leader of a heretical movement is called aheresiarch, while individuals who espouse heresy or commit heresy are known asheretics.
According toTitus 3:10 a divisive person should be warned twice before separating from him. The Greek for the phrase "divisive person" became a technical term in the early Church for a type of "heretic" who promoted dissension.[8] In contrast, correct teaching is called sound not only because it builds up the faith, but because it protects it against the corrupting influence of false teachers.[9]
The use of the wordheresy was given wide currency byIrenaeus in his 2nd-century tractContra Haereses (Against Heresies) to describe and discredit his opponents during the early centuries of the Christian community. He described the community's beliefs and doctrines asorthodox (fromὀρθός,orthos, "straight" or "correct" andδόξα,doxa, "belief") and theGnostics' teachings as heretical.[citation needed] He also invoked the concept ofapostolic succession to support his arguments.[11]
Constantine the Great, who along withLicinius had decreed toleration of Christianity in the Roman Empire by what is commonly called theEdict of Milan,[12] and was the first Roman Emperor baptized, set precedents for later policy. By Roman law the Emperor wasPontifex Maximus, the high priest of theCollege of Pontiffs (Collegium Pontificum) of all recognized religions inancient Rome. To put an end to the doctrinal debate initiated byArius, Constantine called the first of what would afterwards be called theecumenical councils[13] and then enforced orthodoxy by Imperial authority.[14]
The first known usage of the term in a legal context was in AD 380 by theEdict of Thessalonica ofTheodosius I,[15] which made Christianity thestate church of the Roman Empire. Prior to the issuance of this edict, the Church had no state-sponsored support for any particular legal mechanism to counter what it perceived as "heresy". By this edict the state's authority and that of the Church became somewhat overlapping. One of the outcomes of this blurring of Church and state was the sharing of state powers of legal enforcement with church authorities.
Within six years of the official criminalization of heresy by the Emperor, the first Christian heretic to be executed,Priscillian, was condemned in 386 by Roman secular officials for sorcery, and put to death with four or five followers.[16][17][18] However, his accusers were excommunicated both by Ambrose of Milan and by Pope Siricius,[19] who opposed Priscillian's heresy, but "believed capital punishment to be inappropriate at best and usually unequivocally evil."[16] The edict ofTheodosius II (435) provided severe punishments for those who had or spread writings of Nestorius.[20] Those who possessed writings of Arius were sentenced to death.[21]
For some years after theReformation, Protestant churches were also known to execute those they considered heretics; for example,Michael Servetus was declared a heretic by both theReformed Church andCatholic Church for rejecting the Christian doctrine of theHoly Trinity.[25] The last known heretic executed by sentence of the Catholic Church was Spanish schoolmasterCayetano Ripoll in 1826. The number of people executed as heretics under the authority of the various "ecclesiastical authorities"[note 1] is not known.[note 2]
Although less common than in earlier periods, in modern times, formal charges of heresy within Christian churches still occur. Issues in the Protestant churches have included modern biblical criticism and the nature of God. In theCatholic Church, theCongregation for the Doctrine of the Faith criticizes writings for "ambiguities and errors" without using the word "heresy."[31]
On 11 July 2007,Pope Benedict XVI stated that some Protestant groups are "ecclesial communities" rather than Churches.[32] Representatives of some of these Christian denominations accused the Vatican of effectively calling them heretics.[33][34] However, Pope BenedictXVI clarified that the phrase "ecclesial community" did not necessitate explicit heresy, but only that the communities lacked certain "essential elements" of an apostolic church, as he had written in the documentDominus Iesus.
In theCatholic Church, obstinate and willful manifest heresy is considered to spiritually cut one off from the Church, even beforeexcommunication is incurred. An influential definition is that ofRobert Grosseteste of "an opinion chosen by human preference contrary to holy scripture, publicly avowed and obstinately held", a conscious intellectual choice not a private doubt.[35]
The 6th century civil codeCodex Justinianus (1:5:12) defines "everyone who is not devoted to the Catholic Church and to our Orthodox holy Faith" a heretic, disallowing such from positions of authority in the Eastern Roman Empire.[36]
The Church had always dealt firmly with strands of Christianity that it considered heretical, but before the 11th century these tended to centre on individual preachers or small localised sects, likeArianism,Pelagianism,Donatism,Marcionism andMontanism. Jesuit historian David Collins has notes that in the roughly 700 years from the fall of the Roman Empire, there is only a single known execution of heretics.[37]
The diffusion of the almostManichaean sect ofPaulicians westwards gave birth to the famous 11th- and 12th-century heresies of Western Europe. The first one was that ofBogomils in modern-day Bulgaria, a sort of sanctuary between Eastern and Western Christianity. By the 11th century, more organised groups such as thePatarini, theDulcinians, theWaldensians and theCathars were beginning to appear in the towns and cities of northern Italy, southern France and Flanders.
In France the Cathars grew to represent a popular mass movement and the belief was spreading to other areas,[38] though some historians such as R.I. Moore point out a paucity of direct evidence.[37] TheCathar Crusade was initiated by the Catholic Church to eliminate the alleged Cathar heresy inLanguedoc.[39][40]
Heresy was a major justification for theInquisition (Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis, Inquiry on Heretical Perversity) and for theEuropean wars of religion associated with theProtestant Reformation.Galileo Galilei wasbrought before the Inquisition for heresy, butabjured his views and was sentenced tohouse arrest, under which he spent the rest of his life. Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of theuniverse, and that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.[41][42] Most contemporary historians of science believe the Galileo affair is an exception in the overall relationship between science and Christianity.[43][44][45]
Pope Gregory I stigmatized Judaism and the Jewish people in many of his writings. He described Jews as enemies of Christ: "The more theHoly Spirit fills the world, the more perverse hatred dominates the souls of the Jews." He labeled all heresy as "Jewish", claiming that Judaism would "pollute [Catholics and] deceive them with sacrilegious seduction."[46] The identification of Jews and heretics in particular occurred several times inRoman-Christian law.[36][47]
Between 1420 and 1431 theHussite heretics defeated five anti-HussiteCrusades ordered by the Pope.
Martin Luther andPhilip Melanchthon, who played an instrumental part in the formation of theLutheran Churches, condemnedJohannes Agricola and his doctrine ofantinomianism – the belief that Christians were free from the moral law contained in theTen Commandments – as a heresy.[48] Traditional Lutheranism, espoused by Luther himself, teaches that after justification, "the Law of God continued to guide people in how they were to live before God."[48]
In Britain, the 16th-centuryEnglish Reformation resulted in a number of executions on charges of heresy. During the thirty-eight years ofHenry VIII's reign, about sixty heretics, mainly Protestants, were executed and a rather greater number of Catholics lost their lives on grounds of political offences such as treason, notablySir Thomas More and CardinalJohn Fisher, for refusing to accept the king's supremacy over the Church in England.[51][52][53] UnderEdward VI, the heresy laws were repealed in 1547 only to be reintroduced in 1554 byMary I; even so two radicals were executed in Edward's reign (one for denying the reality of the incarnation, the other for denying Christ's divinity).[54] Under Mary, around two hundred and ninety people were burned at the stake between 1555 and 1558 after the restoration of papal jurisdiction.[54] WhenElizabeth I came to the throne, the concept of heresy was retained in theory but severely restricted by the 1559Act of Supremacy and the one hundred and eighty or so Catholics who were executed in the forty-five years of her reign were put to death because they were considered members of "a subversivefifth column."[55] The last execution of a "heretic" in England occurred underJames VI and I in 1612.[56] Although the charge was technically one of "blasphemy" there was one later execution in Scotland (still at that date an entirely independent kingdom) when in 1697Thomas Aikenhead was accused, among other things, of denying the doctrine of the Trinity.[57]
Another example of the persecution of heretics under Protestant rule was the execution of theBoston martyrs in 1659, 1660, and 1661. These executions resulted from the actions of theAnglicanPuritans, who at that time wielded political as well as ecclesiastic control in theMassachusetts Bay Colony. At the time, the colony leaders were apparently hoping to achieve their vision of a "purer absolute theocracy" within their colony.[citation needed] As such, they perceived the teachings and practices of the rival Quaker sect as heretical, even to the point where laws were passed and executions were performed with the aim of ridding their colony of such perceived "heresies."[citation needed]
John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist tradition, harshly criticized antinomianism,[58] considering it the "worst of all heresies".[59] He taught that Christian believers are bound to follow themoral law for theirsanctification.[58] Methodist Christians thus teach the necessity of following the moral law as contained in the Ten Commandments, citingJesus' teaching, "If ye love me, keep my commandments" (cf. Saint John 14:15).[60]
Despite not being considered Muslim, theBaháʼí Faith has been considered a heretical offshoot of Islam.[69]
In 1989,Ruhollah Khomeini, supreme religious leader ofIran, issued afatwa that declared the writing ofSalman Rushdie to be heretical, and a bounty was issued for anyone who assassinated him. Heresy remains anoffense punishable by death in some nations. TheBaháʼí Faith is considered an Islamic heresy in Iran, with systematicpersecution of Baháʼís.[66]
Orthodox Judaism considers views on the part of Jews who depart from traditionalJewish principles of faith heretical. In addition, the more right-wing groups within Orthodox Judaism hold that all Jews who reject the simple meaning ofMaimonides's 13 principles of Jewish faith are heretics.[70] As such, most of Orthodox Judaism considersReform andReconstructionist Judaism heretical movements, and regards most ofConservative Judaism as heretical. The liberal wing ofModern Orthodoxy is more tolerant of Conservative Judaism, particularly its right wing, as there is some theological and practical overlap between these groups.
AlthoughZoroastrianism has had an historical tolerance for other religions, it also held sects likeZurvanism andMazdakism heretical to its main dogma and has violently persecuted them, such as burying Mazdakians with their feet upright as "human gardens." In later periods Zoroastrians cooperated with Muslims to kill other Zoroastrians deemed heretical.[72]
Buddhist andTaoist monks in medieval China often called each other "heretics" and competed to be praised by the royal court. Although today most Chinese believe in a hybrid of the "Three Teachings" (Buddhism, Taoism, Confucian) the competition between the two religions may still be seen in some teachings and commentaries given by both religions today. A similar situation happened withShinto in Japan.Neo-Confucian heresy has also been described.[73]
In other contexts the term does not necessarily havepejorative overtones and may even be complimentary when used, in areas where innovation is welcome, of ideas that are in fundamental disagreement with thestatus quo in any practice and branch of knowledge.
Scientist/authorIsaac Asimov considered heresy as an abstraction, mentioning religious, political, socioeconomic and scientific heresies.[74] He divided scientific heretics into: endoheretics, those from within thescientific community; and exoheretics, those from without. Characteristics were ascribed to both and examples of both kinds were offered. Asimov concluded that science orthodoxy defends itself well against endoheretics (by control of science education, grants and publication as examples), but is nearly powerless against exoheretics. He acknowledged by examples that heresy has repeatedly become orthodoxy.
I have enormous respect for dinosaur paleontologists past and present. But on average, for the last fifty years, the field hasn't tested dinosaur orthodoxy severely enough.[75]: 27
He adds that, "Most taxonomists, however, have viewed such new terminology as dangerously destabilizing to the traditional and well-known scheme."[75]: 462 The illustrations by the author show dinosaurs in very active poses, in contrast to the traditional perception of lethargy.
The termheresy is used not only with regard to religion but also in the context of political theory.[76][77] The term heresy is also used as an ideologicalpigeonhole for contemporary writers because, by definition, heresy depends on contrasts with an establishedorthodoxy. For example, the tongue-in-cheek contemporary usage of heresy, such as to categorize a "Wall Street heresy" a "Democratic heresy" or a "Republican heresy", aremetaphors that invariably retain asubtext that links orthodoxies ingeology orbiology or any other field to religion. These expanded metaphoric senses allude to both the difference between the person's views and the mainstream and the boldness of such a person in propounding these views.
^An "ecclesiastical authority" was initially an assembly of bishops, later the Pope, then an inquisitor (a delegate of the Pope) and later yet the leadership of a Protestant church (which would itself be regarded as heretical by the Pope). The definitions of "state", "cooperation", "suppress" and "heresy" were all subject to change during the past 16 centuries.
^Only very fragmentary records have been found of the executions carried out under Christian "heresy laws" during the first millennium. Somewhat more complete records of such executions can be found for the second millennium. To estimate the total number of executions carried out under various Christian "heresy laws" from AD 385 until the last official Catholic "heresy execution" in 1826 would require far more complete historical documentation than is currently available. The Catholic Church by no means had a monopoly on the execution of heretics. The charge of heresy was a weapon that could fit many hands. A century and a half after heresy was made a state crime, theVandals (a heretical Christian Germanic tribe), used the law to prosecute thousands of (orthodox) Catholics with penalties of torture, mutilation, slavery and banishment.[26] The Vandals were overthrown; orthodoxy was restored; "No toleration whatsoever was to be granted to heretics or schismatics."[27] Heretics were not the only casualties. 4000 Roman soldiers were killed by heretical peasants in one campaign.[28] Some lists ofheretics andheresies are available. About seven thousand people were burned at the stake by theCatholic Inquisition, which lasted for nearly seven centuries.[29] From time to time, heretics were burned at the stake by an enraged local populace, in a certain type of "vigilante justice", without the official participation of the Church or State.[30]Religious Wars slaughtered millions. During these wars, the charge of "heresy" was often leveled by one side against another as a sort of propaganda or rationalization for the undertaking of such wars.
^Sandle, Mark. 2007. "Soviet and Eastern bloc Marxism." pp. 59–77 inTwentieth-Century Marxism, edited by D. Glaser and D. M. Walker. London: Routledge.ISBN978-1-13597974-4.p. 62.
^W.H.C. Frend (1984).The Rise of Christianity. Chapter 7, The Emergence of Orthodoxy 135–93.ISBN978-0-8006-1931-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Appendices provide a timeline of Councils, Schisms, Heresies and Persecutions in the years 193–604. They are described in the text.
^Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Milan, Edict of". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^Chadwick, Henry. 1967.The Early Christian Church. Pelican. pp. 129–130.
^Paul Stephenson (2009). "Chapter 11".Constantine: Roman Emperor, Christian Victor. Harry N. Abrams.ISBN978-1-59020-324-8. The Emperor established and enforced orthodoxy for domestic tranquility and the efficacy of prayers in support of the empire.
^Charles Freeman (2008).A.D. 381 – Heretics, Pagans, and the Dawn of the Monotheistic State. Harry N. Abrams.ISBN978-1-59020-171-8. As Christianity placed its stamp upon the Empire, the Emperor shaped the church for political purposes.
^abBassett, Paul M. 2013. "Priscillian." pp. 949–950 inEncyclopedia of Early Christianity (2nd ed.), edited byE. Ferguson. Routledge.ISBN978-1-13661158-2.p. 950.
^Wismer, Don (2016).Routledge Revivals: The Islamic Jesus (1977): An Annotated Bibliography of Sources in English and French. Routledge.The old opinion of John of Damascus continues to persist among Christian orientalists. The author here replies to Frank Hugh Foster (see 233), who said that Islam is in fact heretical Christianity.
^Caravale, Giorgio (2017).Censorship and Heresy in Revolutionary England and Counter-Reformation Rome: Story of a Dangerous Book. Springer. p. 3.ISBN978-3-319-57439-4.
^McSheffrey, S. (1 February 2005). "Heresy, Orthodoxy and English Vernacular Religion 1480-1525".Past & Present.186 (1):47–80.doi:10.1093/pastj/gti001.
^Will & Ariel Durant (1950).The Age of Faith. Chapter XXVIII, The Early Inquisition: 1000–1300.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Fantoli, A. (2005).The Disputed Injunction and its Role in Galileo's Trial. p. 139.
^Finocchiaro, M. A. (1989).The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 288–293.ISBN978-0-520-06662-5.We say, pronounce, sentence, and declare that you, the above-mentioned Galileo, because of the things deduced in the trial and confessed by you as above, have rendered yourself according to this Holy Office vehemently suspected of heresy, namely of having held and believed a doctine which is false and contrary to the divine and Holy Scripture: that the sun is the center of the world and does not move from east to west, and the earth moves and is not the center of the world, and that one may hold and defend as probable an opinion after it has been declared and defined contrary to Holy Scripture. Consequently you have incurred all the censures and penalties imposed and promulgated by the sacred canons and all particular and general laws against such delinquents. We are willing to absolve you from them provided that first, with a sincere heart and unfeigned faith, in front of us you abjure, curse, and detest the above-mentioned errors and heresies, and every other error and heresy contrary to the Catholic and Apostolic Church, in the manner and form we will prescribe to you.
^Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2014). "Introduction".The Trial of Galileo : Essential Documents. Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated. pp. 1–4.ISBN978-1-62466-132-7...one of the most common myths widely held about the trial of Galileo, including several elements: that he "saw" the earth's motion (an observation still impossible to make even in the twenty-first century); that he was "imprisoned" by the Inquisition (whereas he was actually held under house arrest); and that his crime was to have discovered the truth. And since to condemn someone for this reason can result only from ignorance, prejudice, and narrow-mindedness, this is also the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion.
^McMullin, Ernan (2008). "Robert Bellarmine". In Gillispie, Charles (ed.).Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies.
^Johnson, Thomas A., ed. (2012).Power, National Security, and Transformational Global Events: Challenges Confronting America, China, and Iran (illustrated ed.). CRC Press. p. 162.ISBN9781439884225.
^Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (1936),First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936: E.J. Brill,ISBN9789004097964
^John B. Henderson (1998).The construction of orthodoxy and heresy: Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and early Christian patterns. SUNY Press.ISBN978-0-7914-3760-5.
Alain Le Boulluec (1985),La notion d'hérésie dans la littérature grecque, 2 voll., Paris, Etudes Augustiniennes, (The Notion of Heresy in Greek Literature in the Second and Third Centuries, New York, Oxford University Press, 2022)
