| Hercules | |
|---|---|
God of strength and heroes | |
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| Abode | Rome |
| Symbol | Club, Nemean Lion, bow and arrows |
| Parents | Jupiter andAlcmena |
| Equivalents | |
| Etruscan | Hercle |
| Greek | Heracles |
| Norse | Hercules Magusanus |
Hercules (/ˈhɜːrkjʊˌliːz/,US:/-kjə-/)[2] is the Roman equivalent of the GreekdivineheroHeracles, son ofJupiter and the mortalAlcmena. Inclassical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.
The Romans adapted the Greek hero'siconography and myths for their literature and art under the nameHercules. In laterWestern art and literature and inpopular culture,Hercules is more commonly used thanHeracles as the name of the hero. Hercules is a multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him.[3] This article provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in thelater tradition.
In Roman mythology, although Hercules was seen as the champion of the weak and a great protector, his personal problems started at birth.Juno sent two witches to prevent the birth, but they were tricked by one ofAlcmene's servants and sent to another room. Juno then sentserpents to kill him in his cradle, but Hercules strangled them both. In one version of the myth, Alcmene abandoned her baby in the woods in order to protect him from Juno's wrath, but he was found by the goddessMinerva who brought him to Juno, claiming he was an orphan child left in the woods who needed nourishment. Juno suckled Hercules at her own breast until the infant bit her nipple, at which point she pushed him away, spilling her milk across the night sky and so forming theMilky Way. She then gave the infant back to Minerva and told her to take care of the baby herself. In feeding the child from her own breast, the goddess inadvertently imbued him with further strength and power.
TheLatin nameHercules was borrowed throughEtruscan, where it is represented variously asHeracle, Hercle, and other forms. Hercules was a favorite subject forEtruscan art, and appears often onbronze mirrors. The Etruscan formHerceler derives from the GreekHeracles viasyncope. A mild oath invoking Hercules (Hercule! orMehercle!) was a commoninterjection inClassical Latin.[4]
Though not native to Italic religion, Hercules had become a popular god amongst various Italic cultures, primarily in the south and center of Italy.[5]Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a 1st-century BCE Greek historian, testifies to the popularity of Hercules, stating that "one could scarcely find any place in Italy in which the god is not honored."[5][6] Bronze statuettes dedicated to Hercules have been uncovered from sanctuaries throughout Samnium and the Apennines,[7] with over a hundred such bronzes surfacing near a 3rd-century BCE sanctuary inCorfinium—aPaelignian territory.[5] The popularity of these bronzes may have stemmed from the supposedly militaristic cultures of theSamnites and theMarsi and perhaps mercenaries serving underHippocrates of Gela. However, the classicistKarl Galinsky suggests that these statuettes may instead continue an earlier "Mars" type, which also depicted a warrior figure.[8]
Amongst the hundreds of known Sabellic votive statues of Hercules, a particularly common type—referred to as "Hercules in assault"—portrays a beardless Hercules posed in a manner akin to other warrior statuettes.[9] Hercules is varyingly depicted with certain accompanying accoutrements—in some figurines he is portrayed wielding a club, whereas others depict the hero holding theapples of the Hesperides.[8] Depictions specifically of Hercules are distinguished by the presence of alion skin on the figure. The "Rorschach Hercules," a subtype of the aforementioned "Hercules in assault," portrays the lion skin as a geometric shape resemblant of anink blot. According to Karl Galinsky, it is likely that the "Rorschach" style derives from local Italic artistic customs, in contrast to an alternativeHellenized style, in which the distinctmuscles of the body were emphasized and the lion skin was depicted in a less abstract manner.[9]
According toMacrobius, a 5th-century CE Roman historian, the earlier authorVarro—who lived in the 1st-century BCE—had claimed the Hercules was the same asMars.[10] Confusion between the two deities may have resulted from the agrarian associations of both gods.[5] In theOscanAgnone tablet, Hercules is mentioned with the epithetKeriiúí, equivalent to LatinCerealis, itself a reference toCeres—the Roman goddess of agriculture.[11] Certain places dedicated to Hercules across southern Italy may be associated with prominent agricultural andtranshumance routes, such as inAlba Fucens,[12] where a deity referred to asHercules Salarius ("Hercules of Salt") was honored.[13] According to the archaeologist Annalisa Marzano, the connection with salt may have itself related to the importance of salt incheese production andfood preservation, both of which are themselves vital foranimal husbandry.[14]
However, the archaeologistTesse Stek notes that various sanctuaries of Hercules are not easily connectable with transhumance routes. For instance, a sanctuary of Hercules inCampochiaro is located 300 metres (980 ft) above theBoiano basin on the side of a mountain and is therefore—according to Stek—not easily accessible to anypastoralists.[15] Stek further notes that the primary archaeological evidence for a relationship between Hercules and transhumance dates to the 2nd-century BCE—after Hercules had already become a prominent deity in Italic religions. It is perhaps possible that these 2nd-century BCE sites could preserve the functions of older religious sanctuaries, though Stek states that there is no "self-evident" justification for asserting such continuity.[16] Likewise, the classicist Guy Bradley doubts the supposed pastoralist role of these sanctuaries, noting that these sanctuaries could easily have served the needs of any of the other traders, artisans, or travelers who utilized these roads, not exclusively farmers.[17] Additionally, Bradley argues that the monumentalization of these temples required a level of financial power that was likely unavailable to Samniteshepherds.[18]
Hercules had a number ofmyths that were distinctly Roman. One of these is Hercules's defeat ofCacus, who was terrorizing the countryside of Rome. The hero was associated with theAventine Hill through his sonAventinus.Mark Antony considered him a personal patron god, as did the emperorCommodus. Hercules received various forms ofreligious veneration, including as adeity concerned with children and childbirth, in part because of myths about his precocious infancy, and in part because he fathered countless children. Roman brides wore a special belt tied with the "knot of Hercules", which was supposed to be hard to untie.[19] The comic playwrightPlautus presents the myth of Hercules's conception as a sex comedy in his playAmphitryon;Seneca wrote the tragedyHercules Furens about his bout with madness. During theRoman Imperial era, Hercules was worshipped locally fromHispania throughGaul.[citation needed]
Tacitus records a special affinity of theGermanic peoples for Hercules. In chapter 3 of hisGermania, Tacitus states:
... they say that Hercules, too, once visited them; and when going into battle, they sang of him first of all heroes. They have also those songs of theirs, by the recital of thisbarditus[20] as they call it, they rouse their courage, while from the note they augur the result of the approaching conflict. For, as their line shouts, they inspire or feel alarm.
Some have taken this as Tacitus equating the GermanicÞunraz with Hercules by way ofinterpretatio romana.[21]
In the Roman eraHercules' Club amulets appear from the 2nd to 3rd century, distributed over the empire (includingRoman Britain, cf. Cool 1986), mostly made of gold, shaped like wooden clubs. A specimen found inKöln-Nippes bears the inscription"DEO HER[culi]", confirming the association with Hercules.
In the 5th to 7th centuries, during theMigration Period, the amulet is theorized to have rapidly spread from theElbe Germanic area across Europe. These Germanic "Donar's Clubs" were made from deer antler, bone or wood, more rarely also from bronze or precious metals. The amulet type is replaced by theViking AgeThor's hammer pendants in the course of theChristianization of Scandinavia from the 8th to 9th century.
After the Roman Empire becameChristianized, mythological narratives were often reinterpreted asallegory, influenced by the philosophy oflate antiquity. In the 4th century,Servius had described Hercules's return from the underworld as representing his ability to overcome earthly desires and vices, or the earth itself as a consumer of bodies.[22] In some earlypatristic texts, Hercules was identified with the biblical figureSamson.[23]
In medieval mythography, Hercules was one of the heroes seen as a strong role model who demonstrated both valor and wisdom, while the monsters he battles were regarded as moral obstacles.[24] Oneglossator noted that whenHercules became a constellation, he showed that strength was necessary to gain entrance to Heaven.[25]
Medieval mythography was written almost entirely in Latin, and original Greek texts were little used as sources for Hercules's myths.
TheRenaissance and the invention of theprinting press brought a renewed interest in and publication of Greek literature. Renaissance mythography drew more extensively on the Greek tradition of Heracles, typically under the Romanized name Hercules, or the alternate nameAlcides. In a chapter of his bookMythologiae (1567), the influential mythographerNatale Conti collected and summarized an extensive range of myths concerning the birth, adventures, and death of the hero under his Roman name Hercules. Conti begins his lengthy chapter on Hercules with an overview description that continues the moralizing impulse of the Middle Ages:
Hercules, who subdued and destroyed monsters, bandits, and criminals, was justly famous and renowned for his great courage. His great and glorious reputation was worldwide, and so firmly entrenched that he'll always be remembered. In fact the ancients honored him with his own temples, altars, ceremonies, and priests. But it was his wisdom and great soul that earned those honors; noble blood, physical strength, and political power just aren't good enough.[26]
In 1600, the citizens ofAvignon bestowed onHenry of Navarre (the future KingHenry IV of France) the title of theHercule Gaulois ("Gallic Hercules"), justifying the extravagant flattery with a genealogy that traced the origin of the House of Navarre to a nephew of Hercules's son Hispalus.[27]
The Road of Hercules is a route across Southern Gaul that is associated with the path Hercules took during his 10th labor of retrieving the Cattle of Geryon from the Red Isles.[28] Hannibal took the same path on his march towards Italy and encouraged the belief that he was the second Hercules.[28] Primary sources often make comparisons between Hercules and Hannibal.[28] Hannibal further tried to invoke parallels between himself and Hercules by starting his march on Italy by visiting the shrine of Hercules at Gades. While crossing the alps, he performed labors in a heroic manner. A famous example was noted by Livy, when Hannibal fractured the side of a cliff that was blocking his march.[28]
In ancient Roman society women were usually limited to two types of cults: those that addressed feminine matters such as childbirth, and cults that required virginal chastity.[29] However, there is evidence suggesting there were female worshippers of Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Hercules.[29] Some scholars believe that women were completely prohibited from any of Hercules's cults. Others believe it was only the "Ara Maxima" at which they were not allowed to worship.[29]Macrobius in his first book ofSaturnalia paraphrases from Varro: "For when Hercules was bringing the cattle of Geryon through Italy, a woman replied to the thirsty hero that she could not give him water because it was the day of the Goddess Women and it was unlawful for a man to taste what had been prepared for her. Hercules, therefore, when he was about to offer a sacrifice forbid the presence of women and ordered Potitius and Pinarius who were in charge of his rites, not to allow any women from taking part".[29] Macrobius states that women were restricted in their participation in Hercules cults, but to what extent remains ambiguous. He mentions that women were not allowed to participate in Sacrum which is general term used to describe anything that was believed to have belonged to the gods. This could include anything from a precious item to a temple. Due to the general nature of a Sacrum, we can not judge the extent of the prohibition from Macrobius alone.[29] There are also ancient writings on this topic from Aulus Gellius when speaking on how Romans swore oaths. He mentioned that Roman women do not swear on Hercules, nor do Roman men swear on Castor.[29] He went on to say that women refrain from sacrificing to Hercules.[29] Propertius in his poem 4.9 also mentions similar information as Macrobius. This is evidence that he was also using Varro as a source.[29]
There is evidence of Hercules worship in myth in the Latin epic poem, theAeneid. In the 8th book of the poemAeneas finally reaches the future site of Rome, where he meetsEvander and the Arcadians making sacrifices to Hercules on the banks of the Tiber river.[30] They share a feast, and Evander tells the story of how Hercules defeated the monster Cascus, and describes him as a triumphant hero.[30] Translated from the Latin text of Vergil, Evander stated: "Time brought to us in our time of need the aid and arrival of a god. For there came that mightiest avenger, the victor Hercules, proud with the slaughter and the spoils of threefold Geryon, and he drove the mighty bulls here, and the cattle filled both valley and riverside.[30]
Hercules was also mentioned in the Fables ofGaius Julius Hyginus. For example, in his fable aboutPhiloctetes he tells the story of how Philoctetes built a funeral pyre for Hercules so his body could be consumed and raised to immortality.[31]
According to Livy (9.44.16) Romans were commemorating military victories by building statues to Hercules as early as 305 BCE. Also, philosopherPliny the Elder dates Hercules worship back to the time of Evander, by accrediting him with erecting a statue in the Forum Boarium of Hercules.[32] Scholars agree that there would have been 5–7 temples in Augustan Rome.[32] There are believed to be related Republicantriumphatores, however, not necessarily triumphal dedications. There are two temples located in the Campus Martius. One, being the Temple of Hercules Musarum, dedicated between 187 and 179 BCE by M. Fulvius Nobilior.[32] And the other being the Temple of Hercules Custos, likely renovated by Sulla in the 80s BCE.[32]
In Roman works of art and in Renaissance and post-Renaissance art, Hercules can be identified by his attributes, thelion skin and the gnarledclub (his favorite weapon); inmosaic he is shown tanned bronze, a virile aspect.[33]
In the twentieth century, theFarnese Hercules has inspired artists such asJeff Koons,Matthew Darbyshire andRobert Mapplethorpe to reinterpret Hercules for new audiences.[34] The choice of deliberately white materials by Koons and Darbyshire has been interpreted as perpetuation of colourism in how the classical world is viewed.[34] Mapplethorpe's work with black model Derrick Cross can be seen as a reaction to Neo-classical colourism, resisting the portrayal of Hercules as white.[34]
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Hercules was among the earliest figures on ancient Roman coinage, and has been the main motif of many collector coins and medals since. One example is the Austrian20 euro Baroque Silver coin issued on September 11, 2002. The obverse side of the coin shows the Grand Staircase in the town palace ofPrince Eugene of Savoy inVienna, currently the Austrian Ministry of Finance. Gods anddemi-gods hold its flights, while Hercules stands at the turn of the stairs.
Six successive ships of the BritishRoyal Navy, from the 18th to the 20th century, bore the nameHMSHercules.
In theFrench Navy, there were no less than nineteen ships calledHercule, plus three more namedAlcide which is another name of the same hero.
Hercules's name was also used for five ships of theUS Navy, four ships of theSpanish Navy, four of theArgentine Navy and two of theSwedish Navy, as well as for numerous civilian sailing and steam ships.
In modern aviation amilitary transport aircraft produced byLockheed Martin carries the titleLockheed C-130 Hercules.
Operation Herkules was the German code-name given to an abortive plan for the invasion ofMalta during theSecond World War.
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A series of nineteen Italian Hercules movies were made in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The actors who played Hercules in these films wereSteve Reeves,Gordon Scott, Kirk Morris,Mickey Hargitay, Mark Forest, Alan Steel,Dan Vadis,Brad Harris,Reg Park,Peter Lupus (billed asRock Stevens) and Michael Lane. A number of English-dubbed Italian films that featured the name of Hercules in their title were not intended to be movies about Hercules.
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