The Ottomans were the first to officially use the nameHercegovina (English:Herzegovina;Turkish:Hersek,Ottoman Turkish:هرسك) for the region in their administrative affairs in a letter from 1 February 1454, written by the Ottoman commander Esebeg fromSkopje,[2] and established asanjak bearing that name in 1470, theSanjak of Herzegovina, with its first seat atFoča. They simply followed their established custom of naming places and territories they conquered by the name of its prior rulers. In this case Ottomans usedStjepan Vukčić Kosača's title,herceg, a title he gave himself in 1448, and a year later changed it to Herceg ofSt. Sava, after theSerb saint buried on his territory, considered a miracle worker by Christians of all faiths.[3] It practically became part of his name, in the last few years of his life when he was commonly referred to as Herceg-Stjepan, to name a region he ruled at the time of Ottoman conquest of Bosnia in the second half of the 15th century.[4][5][6][7]Hercegovina is, thus, a possessive noun derived from Herceg-Stjepan's title-name compound and literally means 'duke's land' (hercegovina), 'herceg's land', herceg's holdings and/or territory owned/ruled by aherceg.[8]
The titleherceg is a Slavic form of Germanherzog (the German term for aduke;Serbo-Croatian:vojvoda), and the first among theKosača dukes to use the title was Herceg-Stjepan, who became theHerceg ofHum in 1449–50. In December 1481, the lands of Stjepan Vukčić's successors were finally occupied byOttoman forces. Prior to the widespread adoption of the name "Herzegovina", the region was thus referred to asHumska zemlja ("Hum Land"), orHum for short inSerbo-Croatian.[8][2][7]
However, this is just a superficial understanding, and cannot be attributed toHerceg-Stjepan alone, as his title was not of decisive importance after all.[7] Far more crucial was a well-known Ottoman custom to call newly acquired lands by the names of its earlier lords. It was enough for theOttomans to conquerStjepan's land as a whole, to start calling it Herzegovina. Also,Herceg Stjepan did not establish this province as a feudal and political unit of the Bosnian state, that honor befellGrand Duke of Bosnia,Vlatko Vuković, who received it from KingTvrtko I, whileSandalj Hranić expanded it and reaffirmed the Kosača family supremacy.[7]
While undergovernance ofAustria-Hungary, the region was known in German asHerzgau, which etymologically corresponds to theSlavic name.
Slavs settled in theBalkans in the 7th century. What later became known as Herzegovina was divided betweenCroatia,Zachlumia andTravunia in theEarly Middle Ages. Parts of the region were ruled by various medieval rulers, who were in vassal relations toMedieval Serbia on the east, and theKingdom of Croatia on the west. In the 1100s Hum was in the hands of theNemanjić family, Hungary also claimed Hum as part of its claim on Bosnia, and wars were fought for control by Hungary and the Nemanjić family.[9] By the early 13th centuryRaška held control of most of Hum, andSava created a Serbian a bishopric atSton in 1220. In the 1220s Peter is referred to as the Prince of Hum, and he was also elected Prince ofSplit. The Catholic Church excommunicated him because of hisOrthodoxy, but the citizens of Split kept him as prince. Following his death his descendants continued to rule at least part of Hum for a number of decades.[10]
In the course of the war betweenStephen Uroš II Milutin andStephen Dragutin,Paul I Šubić of Bribir from Croatia expanded not only into western Hum, but also beyond the Neretva river, and took the region ofNevesinje andSton.[11] Paul appointed his eldest son,Mladen II, as Lord of Hum.[12] At least part of Paul's conquests were granted to his vassalConstantine Nelipčić.[11] After Paul's death, Milutin and Dragutin concluded a peace, and went to war against theŠubić family.[11] In the war that followed Milutin took one of Mladen's brother captive, and to get him back Mladen Šubić had to agree to restore a part of Hum to Milutin.[11] After this agreement in 1313 the Neretva again became the border between eastern and western Hum.[11]
After the death ofMilutin in 1321, various Serb nobles took sides and in Hum theBranivojević family became the strongest.[13] With their court at Ston they claimed lands from theCetina River to Kotor, including Pelješac. TheBosnian Ban,Stjepan Kotoromanić, with allied Hum nobles and Serbia refusing to support theBranivojević, took over and annexed Hum in 1326. As part of the war for Hum, Dubrovnik sought to take overPelješac andSton, part of Hum held by the Branivojević. Serbia refused to yield it, which led to conflict between Dubrovnik and Serbia. In 1333 the new king of Serbia,Stefan Dušan, sold Pelješac and Ston to Dubrovnik for cash and an annual tribute.[13]
Under Bosnia Kotoromanović's allies, the Draživojević/Sankovic family ofNevesinje, became the leading family in Hum, while Serbian vassals retained eastern Herzegovina.[13] Other than a rebellion by Toljen of Hum's son, Peter, whom Stjepan captured and put to death, the Hum nobles remained largely loyal to Kotoromanić, while also continuing to manage their local regions. Stjepan did take direct control of the valuable custom's house at Drijeva (Metković). The population of Hum remained overwhelmingly Orthodox, compared to elsewhere in Bosnia where theBosnian Church predominated, and after the arrival of theFranciscans in the 1340s, Catholicism also began to spread.[14]
The town of Novi, founded by theKing Tvrtko I, todayHerceg Novi, was the winter residence of Kosača
During this period, parts of Herzegovina, or as it was called at the timeHumska zemlja, or simplyHum, were given by the King Tvrtko I to, at that point in time the relatively insignificant Bosnian clan ofKosača family and itsVuković branch, headed byVlatko Vuković, who received it as an award for his service as a supreme commander of the Bosnian army.[7]
Another powerful Bosnian noble family,Pavlović, at the time headed byPavle Radinović, whose seat was nearRogatica inDrina county, including holdings in Drina and parts ofVrhbosna, also shared some of the territories in Hum centered aroundTrebinje.[17][18]
However, at the time when Kosače received the Hum from the King, another powerful Bosnian noble family had a primacy in the region. That family was theSanković's, credited for capturing Hum for Bosnia and the Ban Stjepan II, who in 1326, dispatched their early branch, the Draživojević's (the next generation of Bogopenec[19]), whose head wasMilten Draživojević,[20] along with other noblemen, into Hum to oust theBranivojević family, who were, at the time, loyal to Serbia.[21]
So, Sanković's were very active in the 14th and start of the 15th century inHum. Their seat was inGlavatičevo's hamlet Biskupi, where today the family burial place with astećci is still present and protected as aNational monument of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[22] The most prominent members were Sanko Miltenović, the eponymous founder of the Sanković's (the progenitor wasDražen Bogopenec),[23] who died in a battle while leading the Bosnian army to aidRagusa against Serbian lord, the Altomanović, who campaigned against Ragusa in 1370, and his oldest son,Radić Sanković.
TheOttoman threat was brewing to the east, threatening Bosnia and its southeastern regions in Hum. On 27 August 1388, Radić participated in theBattle of Bileća, when the Bosnian army led by the Grand Duke Vlatko, defeated an Ottoman raiding party of up to 18,000 strong.[24][25] Bosnian heavy cavalry is typically credited with winning the battle as they broke the Ottoman ranks and pursued the retreating enemy. Celebrated Ottoman commanderLala Sahin Pasha (Turkish:Lala Şahin Paşa, 1330 – cca 1382) barely managed to save himself with the small band of his soldiers.[26][27][28]
In 1391–1392, Radič and his brother Beljak tried to sell their possessions inKonavle to theRepublic of Ragusa.[29] However, astanak was convoked by the king and the noblemen who opposed the sale ofKonavli byRadič Sanković toDubrovnik.[30] The Grand Duke Vlatko Vuković and the knez Pavle Radinović were sent against Radič in December 1391 after receiving thestanak's blessings.[30] The two captured Radič and occupied Konavli, dividing it between themselves, despite protests from Ragusa.[30][31]
After Vlatko Vuković died sometime between August 1392 - August 1393,[32] he was succeeded by his nephew theGrand Duke of Bosnia,Sandalj Hranić,[15][16] who continued struggle against Radič,[30] who regained his freedom in 1398, immediately seeking to restore his lost lands, becoming an important ally of theKing Stjepan Ostoja.[33]
Radič participated in theBosnian-Dubrovnik War in 1403-1404, leading the attacks on Dubrovnik in the name of the King Stjepan Ostoja. Sandalj captured Radič, took all of his land, and after blinding him he throw him in prison, where Radić died in 1404 marking the end of the Sanković family.[30]
When Sandalj died,Stjepan Vukčić, as Sandalj's nephew, inherited lordship over the Hum, and was the last Bosnian nobleman who had effective control over the province (zemlja) beforeOttoman conquest. He titled himselfDuke of Hum and Primorje, Bosnian Grand Duke,Knyaz of Drina, and laterHerzog of Saint Sava, Lord of Hum and Bosnian Grand Duke, Knyaz of Drina and the rest. Following the Ottomans conquest and fall ofBosnian Kingdom,Hum orHumska zemlja became known asHercegovina (transl. Herzegovina), which literally means "Herzog's land".[2]
Kosača symbols during Stjepan Vukčić
The name"Herzegovina", which still exists with the nameBosnia and Herzegovina,[2][7] is the most-important and indelible legacy of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača; it is unique within the Serbo-Croatian-speaking Balkans, because one person gave his noble title, which in the last few years of his life became inseparable from his name, to a region previously calledHumska zemlja orHum.[8] The Ottoman custom of calling newly acquired lands by the names of their earlier rulers was of decisive importance.[7] Also, Stjepan did not establish this province as a feudal and political unit of the Bosnian state; that honor befellGrand Duke of BosniaVlatko Vuković, who received it from KingTvrtko I;Sandalj Hranić expanded it and reaffirmed the Kosača family's supremacy.[7]
In 1451, Stjepan attacked and laid siege to the city ofDubrovnik. He had earlier been made a nobleman of theRepublic of Ragusa, so consequently, the Ragusan government now proclaimed him a traitor. A reward of 15,000ducats, a palace in Dubrovnik worth 2,000 ducats, and an annual income of 300 ducats was offered to anyone who would kill him, along with the promise of hereditary Ragusan nobility which also helped hold this promise to whoever did the deed. The threat worked and Stjepan eventually raised the siege.[34]
Stjepan Vukčić died in 1466 and was succeeded asherceg by his second-youngest sonVlatko Hercegović, who struggled to retain as much of the territory as he could.[35] In 1471, the Ottomans excluded Hum from theBosnian Sanjak and established a new, separateSanjak of Herzegovina with its seat inFoča.[36][37]
In November 1481,Ajaz-Bey of the Sanjak of Herzegovina besieged Vlatko's capitalNovi but just before 14 December 1481, Vlatko ceased resisting and agreed with the Ottomans to move with his family to Istanbul. Now the entirety of Herzegovina was reorganized into the already established Sanjak of Herzegovina with the seat in Foča,[36] and later, in 1580, would become one of the sanjaks of theBosnia Eyalet.[38] This signified the disappearance of the last-remaining independent point of the medieval Bosnian state.[39]
In 1482, the lands of Stefan Vukčić's successors were occupied by Ottoman forces. The Ottomans were the first to begin officially using the name Herzegovina (Hersek) for the region.
The BosnianbeylerbeyIsa-beg Ishaković mentioned the name in a letter from 1454. In theOttoman Empire, Herzegovina was organized as asanjak, theSanjak of Herzegovina, within theBosnia Eyalet. According to the Turkish census ofHerzegovina from 1477, some villages were mentioned as being "in the possession of Vlachs," while others, were listed as "Serb settlements" and mostly deserted.[40] According to Ottomandefters, at the end of the 15th century in Herzegovina were at least 35,000 Vlachs.[41]
TheCandian War of 1645 to 1669 caused great damage to the region as theRepublic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire fought for control overDalmatia and coastal Herzegovina.
The new joint entity was after 1853 commonly referred to as Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbs in the regionrevolted against the Ottomans (1852–62) and were aided by the Montenegrins, who sought the liberation of theSerb people from Ottoman rule.
Montenegro did succeed in liberating and annexing large parts of Herzegovina before theBerlin Congress of 1878, including theNikšić area; the historical Herzegovina region annexed to Montenegro is known as East orOld Herzegovina.
The historical Herzegovina region in thePrincipality of Montenegro was known as East orOld Herzegovina. The Serb population of Herzegovina and Bosnia hoped for annexation toSerbia and Montenegro. The Franciscan order opened the first university in Herzegovina in 1895 inMostar.
In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed the province, leading to theBosnian Crisis, an international dispute which barely failed to precipitate a world war immediately, and was an important step in the buildup of international tensions during the years leading up to theFirst World War. The assassination of theArchduke Franz Ferdinand came as a direct result of the resentment of the Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina against Austro-Hungarian rule.
DuringWorld War I, Herzegovina was a scene of inter-ethnic conflict. During the war, the Austro-Hungarian government formedŠuckori, Muslim para-militia units. Šuckori units were especially active in Herzegovina. Persecution of Serbs conducted by the Austro-Hungarian authorities was the "first incidence of active 'ethnic cleansing' in Bosnia and Herzegovina".[42]
Herzegovina is a southern region ofBosnia and Herzegovina. Its borders and territory have never been strictly defined, be it geographically or culturally, nor has there ever been a geopolitical and economic subdivision of Bosnia and Herzegovina bearing the name.
The larger of two Bosnia and Herzegovina regions,Bosnia, is to the west and north of Herzegovina, and the border between two regions, Herzegovina and Bosnia, is unclear as it has never been strictly defined. To the south-southwest of region lies Croatian region ofDalmatia, and to the east-southeast isMontenegro.
The terrain of Herzegovina is mostly hillykarst with high mountains in the north such asČvrsnica andPrenj, except for the central valley of the riverNeretva. The upper reaches of the River Neretva lie in northern Herzegovina, a heavily forested area with fast-flowing rivers and high mountains. Konjic and Jablanica lie in this area.
The Neretva rises on Lebršnik Mountain, close to theMontenegro border, and as the river flows west, it enters Herzegovina. The entire upper catchment of the Neretva constitutes a precious ecoregion with many endemic and endangered species. The river carves through the precipitous karst terrain, providing excellent opportunities for rafting and kayaking, while the spectacular scenery of the surrounding mountains and forests is a challenging hiking terrain. The Neretva's tributaries in the upper reaches are mostly short, due to the mountainous terrain: the River Rakitnica has cut a deep canyon, its waters being one of the least explored areas in this part of Europe. The Rakitnica flows into Neretva upstream from Konjic. The Neretva then flows northwest, through Konjic. It enters the Jablanica Reservoir (Jablaničko jezero), one of the largest in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The lake ends near the town of Jablanica. From here on, the Neretva turns southward, continuing toward theAdriatic Sea. With the mountains lining its shores gradually receding, the Neretva enters a valley where the city ofMostar lies. It flows under the old bridge (Stari most) and continues, now wider, toward the town of Čapljina and theNeretva Delta in Croatia before emptying into theAdriatic Sea.
Mostar is the best-known urban area and the unofficial capital. It is the only city with over 100,000 citizens. There are no other large cities in Herzegovina, though some have illustrious histories.[1]
Stolac, for example, is perhaps Herzegovina's oldest city. Settlements date from thePaleolithic period (Badanj Cave). AnIllyrian tribe lived in the city ofDaorson. There were several Roman settlements alongside theBregava River andmedieval inhabitants left large stone grave monuments calledstećak inRadimlja.Trebinje, on the Trebišnjica River, is the southernmost city in Bosnia and Herzegovina, near theMontenegro border.[1]
Čapljina andLjubuški are known for their history and their rivers; the village ofMeđugorje has religious importance for many Roman Catholics.
Within the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Herzegovina is administratively divided between the cantons ofHerzegovina-Neretva andWest Herzegovina; the two cantons only make mention of the region in relation to other locations or geographical features. Part of the region belongs toCanton 10.[1]
The locals of Herzegovina are known by thedemonymHerzegovinians (Hercegovci /Херцеговци;singular masculine:Hercegovac /Херцеговац,feminine:Hercegovka /Херцеговка). While the population of Herzegovina throughout history has been ethnically mixed, theBosnian War in the 1990s resulted in massethnic cleansing and large-scale displacement of peoples. The last pre-war census in 1991 recorded a population of 437,095 inhabitants.
The region has rich history and diverse culture, with variety of important monuments of cultural-historical heritage, such as the following cultural monuments;Mogorjelo,Stari most,Stećci andTekija.[1]
In 2013, tourist cluster Herzegovina was established since Herzegovina didn't have a regional tourist organisation.[47] It includes members from three counties in southern Bosnia and Herzegovina:Herzegovina-Neretva (in which Mostar and Međugorje are also located and have the most tourist traffic),Canton 10 (Livno, Tomislavgrad) andWest Herzegovina as well as part of the Republic of Srpska (such as Trebinje).[47]
Herzegovina's natural landmarks include many features.[1]
The falls ofKravica, on theTrebižat river, consist of several waterfalls near the city of Ljubuški and a popular spot for the local people to take a bath in the hot weather.
TheHutovo Blato is a bird reserve, one of the most important in Europe and a gathering place for many international ornithologists.
Vjetrenica is a cave system and a unique ecosystem. It is located near the border with Croatia, inPopovo Polje in theRavno municipality. The cave has not been explored totally yet, but it is open to visitors. A large number of endemic cave-dwelling species have been discovered there, and new ones can be expected to be discovered still.
Blagaj is also known as the origin of theBuna River, inside a cave system.
Neum at the Adriatic Sea, Bosnia and Herzegovina's only coastal town, is also a tourist destination.
Međugorje has one of the most visited sites in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
^Ćirković 1964, p. 336, Chapter 7: Slom Bosanske države; Part 3: Pad Bosne.
^John V.A. Fine, "The Medieval and Ottoman Roots of Modern Bosnian Society", in Mark Pinson, ed.,The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina: Their Historic Development from the Middle Ages to the Dissolution of Yugoslavia, Harvard Middle East Monographys28, Harvard University Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 2nd ed, 1996ISBN0932885128, p. 11
^B. Djurdjev, "Bosna" inEncyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed. P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs, eds.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0126, 2012.
^"ГЛасник"(PDF). УдружеЊе Архивских Радниҝа Републиҝе Српске. 2013. p. 95.Занимљиво је да су Богопанци, каснији Драживојевићи или Санковићи, почетком тог вијека били у некој зависности од Пурћића, али сада се ситуација у потпуности окренула у корист ових других, те се Познан 1336, као господар Невесиња, помиње као човјек Милтена Драживојевића.
^Ethnic composition of Bosnia-Herzegovina population, by municipalities and settlements, 1991. Vol. Bilten no.234. Sarajevo: Zavod za statistiku Bosne i Hercegovine. 1991.
Karbić, Damir (2004)."Šubići Bribirski do gubitka nasljedne banske časti (1322.)" [The Šubići of Bribir until the Loss of the Hereditary Position of the Croatian Ban (1322)].Historical Contributions (in Croatian).22. Zagreb, Croatia: Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts:1–26.
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