Herat dates back toAvestan times and was traditionally known for itswine. The city has a number of historic sites, including theHerat Citadel and theMusalla Complex. During theMiddle Ages, Herat became one of the important cities ofKhorasan, as it was known as thePearl of Khorasan.[7] After its conquest byTamerlane, the city became an important center of intellectual and artistic life in the Islamic world.[8] Under the rule ofShah Rukh, the city served as the focal point of theTimurid Renaissance, whose glory is thought to have matchedFlorence of theItalian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth.[9][10] After the fall of theTimurid Empire, Herat has been governed by various Afghan rulers since the early 18th century.[11] In 1716, the Abdali Afghans inhabiting the city revolted and formed their own Sultanate, theSadozai Sultanate of Herat. They were conquered by theAfsharid Persia in 1732.
AfterNader Shah's death andAhmad Shah Durrani's rise to power in 1747, Herat separated fromPersia and became part ofAfghanistan.[11] It becamean independent city-state in the first half of the 19th century, facing several QajarIranian invasions until being incorporated intoAfghanistan in 1863.[12] Pashtunzadagan, Darwazekhosh, Ghorian, GhaderGij (QaderGij) and Gozargah are some of the neighborhoods of Herat within the city limits. The roads from Herat to Iran (through the border town ofIslam Qala) andTurkmenistan (through the border town ofTorghundi) are still strategically important. As the gateway to Iran, it collects a high amount of customs revenue for Afghanistan.[13] It also has aninternational airport. Following the2001 war, the city had been relatively safe from Taliban insurgent attacks.[14] In 2021, it was announced that Herat would be listed as aUNESCO World Heritage Site.[15] On 12 August 2021, the city was seized byTaliban fighters as part of the Taliban'ssummer offensive.[16]
Herat is first recorded in ancient times, but its precise date of foundation is unknown. Under the PersianAchaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), the surrounding district was known by theOld Persian name ofHaraiva (𐏃𐎼𐎡𐎺), and in classical sources, the region was correspondingly known as Areia (Aria). In theZoroastrian collection ofAvesta, the district is referred asHaroiva. The name of the district and its principal town is a derivative from that of the local river, theHerey River (fromOld IranianHarayu, meaning "with velocity"), which goes through the district and ends 5 km (3.1 mi) south of Herat.[24] The naming of a region and its principal town after the main river is a common feature in this part of the world— compare the adjoining districts/rivers/towns ofArachosia andBactria.
The districtAria of the Achaemenid Empire is mentioned in the provincial lists that are included in various royal inscriptions, for instance, in theBehistun inscription ofDarius I (ca. 520 BC).[25] Representatives from the district are depicted in reliefs, e.g., at the royal Achaemenid tombs ofNaqsh-e Rustam andPersepolis. They are wearingScythian-style dress (with atunic andtrousers tucked into highboots) and a twistedBashlyk that covers their head, chin and neck.[26]
Herāt was the name of one of the chiefs among the followers of the heroNarīmān, and it was he who first founded the city. After it had fallen to ruinAlexander the Great rebuilt it, and the circuit of its walls was 9000 paces.[7]
Herodotus described Herat asthe breadbasket of Central Asia. At the time of Alexander the Great in 330 BC, Aria was obviously an important district. It was administered by asatrap calledSatibarzanes, who was one of the three main Persian officials in the East of the Empire, together with the satrapBessus ofBactria andBarsaentes of Arachosia. In late 330 BC, Alexander captured the Arian capital that was calledArtacoana. The town was rebuilt and the citadel was constructed. Afghanistan became part of theSeleucid Empire.
However, most sources suggest that Herat was predominantlyZoroastrian. It became part of theParthian Empire in 167 BC. In theSasanian period (226–652), 𐭧𐭥𐭩𐭥Harēv is listed in an inscription on theKa'ba-i Zartosht atNaqsh-e Rustam; andHariy is mentioned in thePahlavi catalogue of the provincial capitals of the empire. Around 430, the town is also listed as having a Christian community, with a bishop from theChurch of the East.[27]
In the last two centuries of Sasanian rule, Aria (Herat) was of great strategic importance in the endless wars between the Sasanians, theChionites, and theHephthalites, who had been settled in the northern section of Afghanistan since the late 4th century.
At the time of theArab invasion in the middle of the 7th century, theSasanian central power seemed already largely nominal in the province in contrast with the role of theHephthalites tribal lords, who were settled in the Herat region and in the neighboring districts, mainly in pastoralBādghis and inQohestān. It must be underlined, however, that Herat remained one of the three Sasanian mint centers in the east, the other two beingsBalkh andMarv. The Hephthalites from Herat and some unidentifiedTurks opposed the Arab forces in a battle of Qohestān in 651-52 AD, trying to block their advance onNishāpur, but they were defeated.
When the Arab armies appeared inKhorāsān in the 650s, Herāt was counted among the twelve capital towns of the Sasanian Empire. The Arab army under the general command ofAhnaf ibn Qais in its conquest of Khorāsān in 652 seems to have avoided Herāt. The city eventually submitted to the Arabs, since shortly afterward, an Arab governor is mentioned there. A treaty was drawn in which the regions of Bādghis and Bushanj were included. Like many other places in Khorāsān, Herāt rebelled and had to be re-conquered several times.[28]
Another power that was active in the area in the 650s wasTang dynasty China which had embarked on a campaign that culminated in theConquest of the Western Turks. By 659–661, the Tang claimed a tenuous suzerainty over Herat, the westernmost point of Chinese power in its long history. This hold however would be ephemeral with local Turkish tribes rising in rebellion in 665 and driving out the Tang.[29]
In 702,Yazid ibn al-Muhallab defeated certain Arab rebels, followers ofIbn al-Ash'ath, and forced them out of Herat. The city was the scene of conflicts between different groups of Muslims and Arab tribes in the disorders leading to the establishment of theAbbasid Caliphate. Herat was also a center of the followers ofUstadh Sis.
...Arab armies carrying the banner of Islam came out of the west to defeat theSasanians in 642 AD and then they marched with confidence to the east. On the western periphery of the Afghan area, the princes of Herat andSeistan gave way to rule by Arab governors but in the east, in the mountains, cities submitted only to rise in revolt, and the hastily converted returned to their old beliefs once the armies passed. The harshness and avariciousness of Arab rule produced such unrest, however, that once the waning power of theCaliphate became apparent, native rulers once again established themselves independent. Among these, the Saffarids of Seistan shone briefly in the Afghan area. The fanatic founder of this dynasty, the coppersmith's apprentice Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari, came forth from his capital atZaranj in 870 AD and marched throughBost,Kandahar,Ghazni,Kabul,Bamiyan,Balkh and Herat, conquering in the name of Islam.[30]
The region of Herāt was under the rule of KingNuh II, the seventh of theSamanid line—at the time ofSebük Tigin and his older son,Mahmud of Ghazni.[31] The governor of Herāt was a noble by the name ofFaik, who was appointed by Nuh III. It is said that Faik was a powerful but insubordinate governor of Nuh III and had been punished by Nuh III. Faik made overtures toBogra Khan and Ughar Khan ofKhorasan. Bogra Khan answered Faik's call, came to Herāt, and became its ruler. The Samanids fled, betrayed at the hands of Faik to whom the defense of Herāt had been entrusted by Nuh III.[31] In 994, Nuh III invited Alptegin to come to his aid. Alptegin, along with Mahmud of Ghazni, defeated Faik and annexed Herāt,Nishapur andTous.[31]
Herat was a great trading center strategically located on trade routes from the Mediterranean to India or China. The city was noted for its textiles during theAbbasid Caliphate, according to many references by geographers. Herāt also had many learned sons such asAnsārī. The city is described byEstakhri andIbn Hawqal in the 10th century as a prosperous town surrounded by strong walls with plenty of water sources, extensive suburbs, an inner citadel, a congregational mosque, and four gates, each gate opening to a thriving market place. The government building was outside the city at a distance of about a mile in a place called Khorāsānābād. A church was still visible in the countryside northeast of the town on the road toBalkh, and farther away on a hilltop stood a flourishingfire temple, called Sereshk, or Arshak according toMustawfi.[7][32][33][34][35]
Herat was a part of theTaherid dominion in Khorāsān until the rise of theSaffarids inSistān underYa'qub-i Laith in 861, who, in 862, started launching raids on Herat before besieging and capturing it on 16 August 867, and again in 872. The Saffarids succeeded in expelling the Taherids from Khorasan in 873.
TheSāmānid dynasty was established inTransoxiana by three brothers,Nuh,Yahyā, andAhmad. Ahmad Sāmāni opened the way for the Samanid dynasty to the conquest of Khorāsān, including Herāt, which they were to rule for one century. The centralized Samanid administration served as a model for later dynasties. The Samanid power was destroyed in 999 by theQarakhanids, who were advancing onTransoxiana from the northeast, and by theGhaznavids, former Samanid retainers, attacking from the southeast.
Ghaznavid Era
High-spouted brass ewer, from Herat,Ghurid period (AD 1180–1200).[36]
Sultan Maḥmud of Ghazni officially took control of Khorāsān in 998. Herat was one of the six Ghaznavid mints in the region. In 1040, Herat was captured by theSeljuk Empire. During this change of power in Herat, there was supposedly a power vacuum which was filled byAbdullah Awn, who established a city-state and made an alliance with Mahmud of Ghazni.[37] Yet, in 1175, it was captured by theGhurids ofGhor and then came under theKhawarazm Empire in 1214. According to the account of Mustawfi, Herat flourished especially under theGhurid dynasty in the 12th century. Mustawfi reported that there were "359 colleges in Herat, 12,000 shops all fully occupied, 6,000 bath-houses; besides caravanserais and mills, also adarwishconvent and a fire temple". There were about 444,000 houses occupied by a settled population. The men were described as "warlike and carry arms", and they wereSunniMuslims.[7] Thegreat mosque of Herāt was built byGhiyasuddin Ghori in 1201. In this period Herāt became an important center for producing metal goods, especially inbronze, often decorated with elaborate inlays in precious metals.
TheMongol Empire laid siege to Herat twice. The first siege resulted in the surrender of the city, the slaughter of the local sultan's army of 12,000, and the appointment of two governors, one Mongol and one Muslim. The second, prompted by a rebellion against Mongol rule, lasted seven months and ended in June 1222 with, according to one account, the beheading of the entire population of 1,600,000 people by the victorious Mongols, such that "no head was left on a body, nor body with a head."[38]
The city remained in ruins from 1222 to about 1236. In 1244, a local princeShams al-Din Kart was named ruler of Herāt by the Mongol governor of Khorāsān and in 1255 he was confirmed in his rule by the founder of theIl-Khan dynastyHulagu. Shamsuddin Kart founded a new dynasty and his successors, especially Fakhruddin Kart and Ghiyasuddin Kart, built many mosques and other buildings. The members of this dynasty were great patrons of literature and the arts. By this time Herāt became known as thepearl of Khorasan.
If anyone asks thee which is the pleasantest of cities, Thou mayest answer him aright that it is Herāt. For the world is like the sea, and the province of Khurāsān like a pearl-oyster therein, The city of Herāt being as the pearl in the middle of the oyster.[7]
Timur took Herat in 1380 and he brought theKartid dynasty to an end a few years later. The city reached its greatest glory under theTimurid princes, especiallySultan Husayn Bayqara who ruled Herat from 1469 until 4 May 1506. His chief minister, the poet and author in Persian and Turkish,Mir Ali-Shir Nava'i was a great builder and patron of the arts. Under the Timurids, Herat assumed the role of the main capital of an empire that extended in the West as far as centralPersia. As the capital of the Timurid empire, it boasted many fine religious buildings and was famous for its sumptuous court life and musical performance and its tradition of miniature paintings. On the whole, the period was one of relative stability, prosperity, and development of economy and cultural activities. It began with the nomination ofShahrokh, the youngest son of Timur, as governor of Herat in 1397. The reign of Shahrokh in Herat was marked by intense royal patronage, building activities, and the promotion of manufacturing and trade, especially through the restoration and enlargement of the Herat's bāzār. The present Musallah Complex, and many buildings such as the madrasa ofGawhar Shad, Ali Shir mahāl, many gardens, and others, date from this time. The village ofGazar Gah, over two km northeast of Herat, contained a shrine that was enlarged and embellished under the Timurids. The tomb of the poet and mysticKhwājah Abdullāh Ansārī (d. 1088), was first rebuilt by Shahrokh about 1425, and other famous men were buried in the shrine area.
In the summer of 1458, theQara Qoyunlu underJahan Shah advanced as far as Herat, but had to turn back soon because of a revolt by his sonHasan Ali and also becauseAbu Said's march on Tabriz.[39]
In 1507, Herat was occupied by theUzbeks but after much fighting the city was taken byShah Isma'il, the founder of theSafavid dynasty, in 1510 and the ShamluQizilbash assumed the governorship of the area. Under the Safavids, Herat was again relegated to the position of a provincial capital, albeit one of particular importance. At the death of Shah Isma'il the Uzbeks again took Herat and held it untilShah Tahmasp retook it in 1528. The Persian king,Shah Abbas the Great was born in Herat, and in Safavid texts, Herat is referred to asa'zam-i bilād-i īrān, meaning "the greatest of the cities of Iran".[40] In the 16th century, all future Safavid Persian rulers, from Tahmasp I to Abbas I, were governors of Herat in their youth.[41]
In 1793,Herat became independent for several years whenAfghanistan underwent a civil war between different sons ofTimur Shah. TheIranians had multiple wars with Herat between 1801 and 1837 (1804, 1807, 1811, 1814, 1817, 1818, 1821, 1822, 1825, 1833).[12] The Iraniansbesieged the city in 1837, but the British helped the Heratis in repelling them. In 1856, they invaded again, and briefly managed to take the city on 25 October;[12] it led directly to theAnglo-Persian War. In 1857 hostilities between the Iranians and the British ended after theTreaty of Paris was signed, and the Persian troops withdrew from Herat in September 1857.[42][12] Afghanistan conquered Herat on 26 May 1863, underDost Muhammad Khan, two weeks before his death.[43]
The famousMusalla of Gawhar Shah of Herat, a large Islamic religious complex consisting of five minarets, several mausoleums along withmosques andmadrasas was dynamited during thePanjdeh incident to prevent their usage by the advancingRussian forces. Some emergency preservation work was carried out at the site in 2001 which included building protective walls around theGawhar Shad Mausoleum and Sultan Husain Madrasa, repairing the remaining minaret of Gawhar Shad's Madrasa, and replanting the mausoleum garden.[44][45][46]
In the 1960s, engineers from the United States builtHerat Airport, which was used by theSoviet forces during theDemocratic Republic of Afghanistan in the 1980s. Even before theSoviet invasion at the end of 1979, there was a substantial presence of Soviet advisors in the city with their families.
Between 10–20 March 1979, theAfghan Army in Herat under the control of commanderIsmail Khan mutinied. Thousands of protesters took to the streets against theKhalq communist regime's oppression led byNur Mohammad Taraki. The new rebels led by Khan managed to oust the communists and take control of the city for 3 days, with some protesters murdering any Soviet advisers and targeting women withoutheadscarves, dubbedsārluchi. This shocked the government, who blamed the new administration ofIran following theIranian Revolution for influencing the uprising.[48] Reprisals by the government followed, and between 3,000 and 24,000 people (according to different sources) were killed, in what is called the1979 Herat uprising, or in Persian as theQiam-e Herat.[49] The city itself was recaptured with by theAfghan Army’s 4th and 15th Armoured Brigades, detachments of theAfghan Commando Forces and theAfghan Air Force but at the cost of thousands of civilians killed.[50] This rebellion was the first of its kind since theThird Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, and was the bloodiest event preceding theSoviet–Afghan War.[51]
View of Herat, 2011
Herat received damage during theSoviet–Afghan War, especially its western side. The province as a whole was one of the worst-hit. In April 1983, a series of Soviet bombings damaged half of the city and killed around 3,000 civilians, described as "extremely heavy, brutal and prolonged".[52] Ismail Khan was the leadingmujahideen commander in Herat fighting against the Soviet-backed government.
After the communist government's collapse in 1992, Khan joined thenew government and he became governor ofHerat Province. The city was relatively safe and it was recovering and rebuilding from the damage caused in the Soviet–Afghan War.[53] However, on 5 September 1995, the city was captured by theTaliban without much resistance, forcing Khan to flee. Herat became the first Persian-speaking city to be captured by the Taliban. The Taliban's strict enforcement of laws confining women at home and closing girls' schools alienated Heratis who are traditionally more liberal and educated, like the Kabulis, than other urban populations in the country. Two days of anti-Taliban protests occurred in December 1996 which was violently dispersed and led to the imposition of a curfew.[54] In May 1999, a rebellion in Herat was crushed by the Taliban, who blamed Iran for causing it.[55]
After theU.S. invasion of Afghanistan, on 12 November 2001, it was captured from the Taliban by forces loyal to theNorthern Alliance and Ismail Khan returned to power (seeBattle of Herat). The state of the city was reportedly much better than that of Kabul.[5] In 2004,Mirwais Sadiq, Aviation Minister of Afghanistan and the son of Ismail Khan, was ambushed and killed in Herāt by a local rival group. More than 200 people were arrested under suspicion of involvement.[56]
In 2005, theInternational Security Assistance Force (ISAF) began establishing bases in and around the city. Its main mission was to train theAfghan National Security Forces (ANSF) and help with the rebuilding process of the country.Regional Command West, led by Italy, assisted theAfghan National Army (ANA)207th Corps. Herat was one of the first seven areas that transitioned security responsibility from NATO to Afghanistan. In July 2011, the Afghan security forces assumed security responsibility from NATO.
Due to their close relations, Iran began investing in the development of Herat's power, economy and education sectors.[57] In the meantime, the United States built aconsulate in Herat to help further strengthen itsrelations with Afghanistan. In addition to the usual services, the consulate works with the local officials on development projects and with security issues in the region.[58]
Herat has acold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classificationBSk). Precipitation is very low, and mostly falls in winter. Although Herāt is approximately 240 m (790 ft) lower thanKandahar, the summer climate is more temperate, and the climate throughout the year is far from disagreeable, although winter temperatures are comparably lower. From May to September, the wind blows from the northwest with great force. The winter is tolerably mild; snow melts rather quickly, and even on the mountains does not lie long. The eastern reaches of theHari River, including the rapids, are frozen hard in the winter, and people travel on it as on a road.
Museum inside theHerat Citadel, locally referred to asQala Ikhtyaruddin orArg.The Information Technology and Engineering Facility atHerat University.Section of Herat
Of the more than dozen minarets that once stood in Herāt, many have been toppled from war and neglect over the past century. Recently, however, everyday traffic threatens many of the remaining unique towers by shaking the very foundations they stand on. Cars and trucks that drive on a road encircling the ancient city rumble the ground every time they pass these historic structures.UNESCO personnel and Afghan authorities have been working to stabilize the Fifth Minaret.[62][63]
The population of Herat numbered approximately 592,902 in 2021.[3] The majority of Herat's population isTajik, at 85%, followed by a relatively large minority ofPashtuns at 10%, and small minorities ofHazaras (2%),Uzbeks (2%), andTurkmens (1%)[65].98% of Herat isSunni and 2% isShia. The city has high residential density clustered around the core of the city. However, vacant plots account for a higher percentage of the city (21%) than residential land use (18%) and agricultural is the largest percentage of total land use (36%).[66]
The city once had aJewish community. About 280 families lived in Herat as of 1948, but most of them moved toIsrael that year, and the community disappeared by 1992. There are four formersynagogues in the city's old quarter, which were neglected for decades and fell into disrepair. In the late 2000s, the buildings of the synagogues were renovated by theAga Khan Trust for culture, and at this time, three of them were turned into schools and nurseries, the Jewish community having vanished. In 2022, the Taliban government approved conservation work on theYu Aw Synagogue, located in Herat's old city.[67] The Jewish cemetery is being taken care of by Jalil Ahmed Abdelaziz.[68]
Abu Uthman al-Sabuni, from the 11th-century, leadingSunni scholar and hadith expert, jurist in theShafi'i school, respected Qur'anic exegete and theologian, regarded asShaykh al-Islām, a title that was uniquely his among the Sunnis of his time
Herat International Airport was built by engineers from the United States in the 1960s and was used by theSoviet Armed Forces during theSoviet–Afghan War in the 1980s. It was bombed in late 2001 duringOperation Enduring Freedom but had been rebuilt within the next decade. The runway of the airport has been extended and upgraded and as of August 2014 there were regularly scheduled direct flights toDelhi,Dubai,Mashad, and various airports in Afghanistan. At least five airlines operated regularly scheduled direct flights toKabul.
Rail connections to and from Herat were proposed many times, duringThe Great Game of the 19th century and again in the 1970s and 1980s, but nothing came to life. In February 2002, Iran and theAsian Development Bank[70][71] announced funding for a railway connectingTorbat-e Heydarieh in Iran to Herat. This was later changed to begin inKhaf in Iran, a 191 km (119 mi) railway for both cargo and passengers, with work on the Iranian side of the border starting in 2006.[72][73] Construction is underway in the Afghan side and it was estimated to be completed by March 2018.[74] There is also the prospect of an extension across Afghanistan toSher Khan Bandar.
^Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1970).An Historical Guide to Afghanistan. Vol. First Edition. Kabul: Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization. p. 492.Archived from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved17 June 2012.
^Christoph Baum (2018).History of Central Asia. Vol. 4. p. 297.
^Savory, Roger (2 January 2007). "The Safavid state and polity".Iranian Studies.7 (1–2): 206.doi:10.1080/00210867408701463.Herat is referred to as a'zam-i bilād-i īrān (the greatest of the cities of Iran) and Isfahan as khulāsa-yi mulk-i īrān (the choicest part of the realm of Iran).
^Avery, Peter; Hambly, Gavin; Melville, Charles, eds. (1991).The Cambridge History of Iran (Vol. 7): From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 183,394–395.ISBN978-0521200950.
^"MOḤAMMAD NĀDER SHAH – Encyclopaedia Iranica".www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved23 April 2019.The following year, his enthronement was legitimated by a Lōya jerga (9-20 September 1930), whilst the final strongholds of Saqawi resistance were repressed in Kohdāman in 1930 (Eṣlāḥ I/67-70, 1930), and in Herat in 1931.
^Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to the Present by Gilles Dorronsoro, 2005
^Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation, by J. Bruce Amstutz – Page 133 & 145
^War, Exile and the Music of Afghanistan: The Ethnographer's Tale by John Baily
^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved1 January 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^A good description of the sites, including former afgahani jews who lived there, and of some locals, could be seen at "Quest for the lost tribes", a film bySimcha Jacobovici.
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