Heqin, also known asmarriage alliance, refers to the historical practice ofChinese monarchs marrying princesses—usually members of minor branches of the ruling family—to rulers of neighboring states.[1] It was often adopted as anappeasement strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective. It implied an equal diplomatic status between the two monarchs. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics.[1]
There were a total of fifteen instances ofheqin marriage alliances during the Han dynasty.[5][3]
The Han dynasty sent random unrelated commoner women falsely labeled as "princesses" and members of the Han imperial family multiple times when they were practicing Heqin marriage alliances with the Xiongnu in order to avoid sending the emperor's daughters.[6][7][8][9][10]
200BC:Emperor Gaozu of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftainModu Chanyu. This is the first recorded incidence of heqin in Chinese history.
174BC:Emperor Wen of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftainLaoshang Chanyu. She brings a Yan eunuch named Zhonghang Yue with her to be her tutor.
103BC:Emperor Wu of Han marriesLiu Jieyou (刘解忧 121–49 BC) to King Junxumi ofWusun (Liejiaomi's grandson). After Junxumi's death in 93BC, Princess Jieyou, in accordance withWusun tradition, married his successor (and younger brother), King Wengguimi. After Wengguimi's death in 60BC, Princess Jieyou again remarried his successor King Nimi (son of Junximi and a Xiongnu princess).
33BC:Emperor Yuan of Han marriesWang Zhaojun (王昭君 52 BC – 15), a lady of the imperial harem, to Xiongnu chieftain Huhanye. After Huhanye's death in 31BC, she remarried Huhanye's successor (his son by his first wife and thus her stepson) Fuzhuleiruodi Chanyu.
TheXiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials by marrying off daughters of theChanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) to Han people who joined the Xiongnu and Xiongnu in Han service. The daughter of theLaoshangChanyu (and older sister ofJunchen Chanyu andYizhixie Chanyu) was married to the Xiongnu GeneralZhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of theQiedihou Chanyu was married to the Han generalLi Ling after he surrendered and defected.[11][12] TheYenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.[13][14] Another Han general who defected to the Xiongnu wasLi Guangli who also married a daughter of theHulugu Chanyu.[15] The Han diplomatSu Wu married a Xiongnu woman given by Li Ling when he was arrested and taken captive.[16] The Han explorerZhang Qian married a Xiongnu woman and had a child with her when he was taken captive by the Xiongnu. TheEmperor Wu of Han dispatched Zhang Qian to explore theWestern Regions and to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. During this time Zhang married a Xiongnu wife, who bore him a son, and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.[17][18]
TheYenisei Kyrgyzkhagans of theYenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate claimed descent from the Han generalLi Ling, grandson of the famous generalLi Guang.[19][20] Li Ling was captured by theXiongnu and defected in the first century BCE.[21][22] And since the Tang imperial Li family also claimed descent from Li Guang, the Kirghiz Khagan was therefore recognized as a member of the Tang imperial family. This relationship soothed the relationship when Kyrgyz khaganAre (阿熱) invadedUyghur Khaganate and put Qasar Qaghan to the sword. The news brought toChang'an by Kyrgyz ambassador Zhuwu Hesu (註吾合素).
Ban Zhi married a Xiongnu Jin royal woman from the Xiutu royal family
A daughter of the King of Khotan married to the ruler ofDunhuang, Cao Yanlu, is here shown wearing elaborate headdress decorated with jade pieces. Mural inMogao Cave 61,Five Dynasties.
The Cao family of ethnic Han descent that ruled theGuiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the SakaKingdom of Khotan, with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotan rulers. A Khotan princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan marriedCao Yanlu.[24]
During theSixteen Kingdoms period, there were a total of six recorded instances ofheqin marriage.Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during theHan dynasty in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (i.e. daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han dynasty, when mostheqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations,heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.[5]
Fu Jian (337–385), Emperor Xuanzhao of Former Qin, married one of his daughters to Yang Ding, ruler of the state ofChouchi.
441:Feng Ba, Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan, married his daughter,Princess Lelang (乐浪公主), to Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran.
415:Yao Xing, Emperor Wenhuan of Later Qin, married his daughter, Princess Xiping (西平公主), toEmperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei. Because she was unable to forge a golden statue with her own hands, she was never formally empress, but was nevertheless recognized and respected as Emperor Mingyuan's wife,Consort Yao.
433: Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang, marries his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), toEmperor Taiwu of Northern Wei. She became Emperor Taiwu's concubine.
During theNorthern and Southern dynasties period, China was divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed.Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states.[5]
During the Northern and Southern dynasties, there were five instances ofheqin marriage.
Princess Qianjin (千金公主), daughter of Yuwen Zhao, Prince of Zhao (赵王宇文招) and a member of the imperial family ofNorthern Zhou, marriedIshbara, Khagan of theEastern Turkic Khaganate.
TheTuoba imperial family of theXianbei-ledNorthern Wei dynasty started to arrange for ethnic Han elites to marry daughters of the imperial family in the 480s.[25] More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of theSouthern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei.[26] Some exiled royalty of Han descent fled from southern China and defected to the Northern Wei. Several daughters of the XianbeiEmperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to ethnic Han elites, theLiu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,[27] Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant ofJin dynasty (266–420) royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 toXiao Baoyin 萧宝夤, a member ofSouthern Qi royalty.[28]Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sisters, the Shouyang Princess was wedded to theLiang dynasty rulerEmperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong蕭綜.[29] One ofEmperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei's sister was married to Zhang Huan, an ethnic Han, according to theBook of Zhou. His name is given as Zhang Xin in theBook of Northern Qi andHistory of the Northern Dynasties which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to anaming taboo on the emperor's name. He was the son of Zhang Qiong.[30]
When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi (司馬楚之) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth toSima Jinlong.Northern LiangLushuihu KingJuqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.[31]
The Kingdom ofGaochang was made out of ethnicHan colonists and ruled by the Han people[34][35]Qu family, which originated fromGansu.[36] Jincheng commandery (金城 in Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong (榆中) was the home of the Qu Jia.[37] The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.[38][39]
With the establishment of theSui dynasty in 581, much ofChina proper was once again unified under one dynasty.Heqin marriage during the Sui dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes surrounding the Sui.[5] There were a total of seven instances ofheqin marriage during the Sui dynasty.
599:Emperor Wen of Sui marries another Sui princess, Princess Yicheng (义成公主), the daughter of a Sui imperial clansman, toYami, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. After his death in 609, Princess Yicheng, in accordance with the Göktürk custom oflevirate marriage, remarried to Yami Qaghan's successor and son (by another wife),Shibi Qaghan. After Shibi Qaghan's death in 619, Princess Yicheng again remarried to Shibi Qaghan's successor and younger brother,Chuluo. After the khagan's death in 621, Princess Yicheng remarried for the fourth and final time to his successor and younger brother,Illig Qaghan, who revolted against Tang China and was captured and killed in 630
Emperor Yang of Sui married Princess Xinyi (信义公主), a Sui "princess", toHeshana Khan, Khagan of the Western Turkish Khaganate.
Emperor Yang of Sui married his youngest daughter, Princess Huainan (淮南公主), to the new heir, Shibi's eldest son, Tuli.
596:Emperor Wen of Sui marries Princess Guanghua (光化公主), a Sui "princess", toMurong Shifu, khagan ofTuyuhun. After Murong Shifu's assassination in 597, Princess Guanghua remarried Murong Shifu's successor and younger brother,Murong Fuyun.
642: Emperor Taizong proposed the marriage of his fifteenth daughter, Princess Xinxing (新兴公主), toZhenzhu Khan, Khan of Xueyantuo. The heqin was called off.
664:Emperor Gaozong of Tang marries Lady Jincheng (金城县主), the third daughter of Li Dao'en, Prince of Guiji (会稽郡王李道恩), to Prince Sudumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子苏度摸末).
664: Emperor Gaozong marries Lady Jinming (金明县主), the daughter of a Tang imperial clansman, to Prince Talumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子闼卢摸末).
709: Empress Wu Zetian marries her great-granddaughter Princess Jincheng (金城公主), the daughter of her grandsonLi Shouli, Prince of Bin, to EmperorMe Agtsom of Tibet
712:Emperor Ruizong of Tang marries his granddaughter, Princess Jinshan (金山公主), the daughter of his sonLi Chengqi, to Qapaghan Khagan
717:Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries Princess Yongle (永乐公主), the daughter of Yang Yuansi (杨元嗣) and a daughter of Li Xu, Prince of Dongping (东平王李续, son of Li Shen, Prince of Ji, the seventeenth son of Emperor Taizong), to Li Shihuo (李失活), leader of the Khitans.
717: Princess Jianghe (交河公主), the daughter of Ashina Nahuaidao, 10th Khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate, marries Sulu Khan, Khagan ofTurgesh.
722:Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries Princess Yanjun (燕郡公主) (surname Murong (慕容)), a Tang "princess", to Khitan prince Li Yuyu (李郁于).
726: Emperor Xuanzong marries his niece, Princess Donghua (东华公主, surname Chen 陈), to Khitan prince Li Shaogu (李邵固).
726: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Dongguang (东光公主), the daughter of Emperor Xuanzong's first cousin Li Jijiang, Princess Cheng'an (成安公主李季姜 eighth daughter ofEmperor Zhongzong of Tang) and Wei Jie (韦捷), to Li Lusu (李鲁苏), ruler ofKumo Xi.
744: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Heyi (和义公主), a daughter of Li Can, Magistrate of Gaocheng (告城县令李参), to Axilan Dagan (阿悉烂达干), King of Ningyuan (宁远国王) in theFergana Valley.
745: Emperor Xuanzong marries his granddaughter, Princess Jingle (静乐公主, daughter of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xincheng 信成公主 and Dugu Ming 独孤明), to Khitan prince Li Huaixiu (李怀秀).
745: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Yifang (宜芳公主), daughter of Princess Changning (长宁公主, daughter ofEmperor Zhongzong of Tang) and Yang Shenjiao (杨慎交), to Khitan prince Li Yanchong (李延宠)
TheKhitan-ledLiao dynasty asked for a Song princess to marry the Liao emperor in the negotiations leading up to theChanyuan Treaty but the Song dynasty refused to give a princess. TheJurchen-ledJin dynasty later rebelled against the Liao dynasty, sacked and destroyed the Liao supreme capital and burned the ancestral tombs of the Liao emperors. TheEmperor Tianzuo of Liao was executed by the Jurchens during a polo match. Liao imperial princesses from theYelü family and Xiao family were also distributed to Jin princes as concubine.Wanyan Liang married the Khitan women Lady Xiao (蕭氏), Consort Chen (宸妃), Lady Yelü (耶律氏), Consort Li (麗妃), Lady Yelü (耶律氏), Consort Rou (柔妃) and Lady Yelü (耶律氏), Zhaoyuan (昭媛).
The Jin dynasty then attacked the Northern Song dynasty in theJingkang incident and seized a large number of the Song imperial family. Song princesses were married off to Jin princes such asEmperor Xizong of Jin. The Song male princes who were captured were given ethnic Khitan women to marry from the Liao dynasty palace by the Jin, who had also defeated and conquered the Liao. The original Han wives of the Song princes were confiscated and replaced with Khitan ones. One of theEmperor Huizong of Song's sons was given a Khitan consort from the Liao palace, and another one of his sons was given a Khitan princess by the Jin at the Jin supreme capital. The Jurchens continued to give new wives to the captured Song royals, the grandsons and sons of the Emperor Huizong of Song after they took away their original ethnic Han wives.[40] The Jin told the Song royals that they were fortunate because the Liao royals were being treated much worse by the Jin than the Song royals, Jin soldiers were given the children of theEmperor Tianzuo of Liao as gifts while the Song emperor was allowed to keep his children while he was in captivity.[41]
TheLiao dynasty arranged for women from the consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han 韓 clan of ethnic Han descent, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Liao and becoming part of the ethnic Han elites of the Liao.[42][43][44]
The Geng family of Han descent intermarried with the Khitans and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin.[45] Empress Rende's sister, a member of the Xiao clan, was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi.[46]
Han Derang (Yelü Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of the State of Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb inZhaoyang in Liaoning.[47] His wife was also known as "Madame Han".[48] The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.[49][50]
The Cao family of ethnic Han descent that ruled theGuiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of theGanzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.[51][52][53]
TheEmperor Gong of Song surrendered to theYuan dynasty in 1276 and was married off to an ethnic Mongol princess of the imperialBorjigin family of the Yuan dynasty.Zhao Xian had one son with the Borjigin woman, Zhao Wanpu. Zhao Xian's sonZhao Wanpu was kept alive by the Yuan because of his mother's Borjigin ancestry even after Zhao Xian was ordered killed by theEmperor Yingzong of Yuan. Instead Zhao Wanpu was only moved and exiled. The outbreak of the Song loyalistRed Turban Rebellion in Henan led to a recommendation that Zhao Wanpu should be transferred somewhere else by an Imperial Censor in 1352. The Yuan did not want the ethnic Han rebels to get their hands on Zhao Wanpu so no one was permitted to see him and Zhao Wanpu's family and himself were exiled toShazhou near the border by the Yuan emperor.Paul Pelliot andJohn Andrew Boyle commented onRashid-al-Din Hamadani's chapterThe Successors of Genghis Khan in his workJami' al-tawarikh, identified references by Rashid al-Din to Zhao Xian in his book where he mentions a Chinese ruler who was an "emir" and son-in-law to the Qan (Khan) after being removed from his throne by the Mongols and he is also called "Monarch of Song", or "Suju" (宋主; Songzhu) in the book.[55]
TheKing of Dali Duan Gong was married to the Borjigin princess Agai, daughter of the Yuan dynastyPrince of Liang,Basalawarmi. They had a son and a daughter,Duan Sengnu.[56][57] their children were also calledDuan Qiangna andDuan Bao.[58] Duan Sengnu raised Duan Bao to take revenge against Basalawarmi for the killing of Duan Gong.[59][60] A play was made based on these events.[61][62] According to Yuan documents, the Duan family were originally ethnic Han from Wuwei commandery, Gansu.[63][64][65] Other Duan families also originated from Wuwei.[66][67]
TheOirat leaderEsen Taishi captured theZhengtong Emperor of theMing dynasty. Esen Taishi tried to force the Zhengtong Emperor to marry Esen's sister in aheqin marriage[68] and then placing him back in Beijing with his new wife.[69][70][71] The emperor rejected the marriage proposal.[72]
A Mongol account in theAltan Tobchi said that Zhengtong Emperor had a son with an ethnic Mongol woman he married while he was prisoner.[73]
A Mongol girl was given in marriage by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong) to the ethnic Han officer of the Datong ArmyWang Duo's (王鐸) sonWang San (王三) because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often ethnic received Mongol wives.[74]
In the total span of the Qing dynasty, the number of ethnic Mongol grooms of Qing princesses was the largest. More than 58 percent of imperial sons-in-law were Mongols. A total of 32 princesses married Mongols but the majority of these were in the early Qing like EmperorHong Taiji who married off 12 of his daughters to ethnic Mongol elites, when the Qing needed military support.[75] In the early period of Qing, a large amount of intermarriage between the two groups happened, and the Qing rulers used this tie to gain the military support from the Mongol tribes. The marriage also benefited the Qing dynasty in expanding its empire into theMongolian Plateau and further west into Inner Asia. The marriage between ethnic Manchu princesses and ethnic Mongol princes continued to the end of Qing dynasty, although becoming less prominent after the 18th century due to the decline of the Mongols' political and military influence within the empire and the Qing after 1770 totally ceased marrying princesses off to Northern and Western Mongols, only marrying them off to princes from the southern Mongols who voluntarily surrendered to them before the establishment of the Qing, who numbered 7 tribes and 13 banners since the locations they inhabited were vital to Qing security unlike the steppes of the Northern and Western Mongols since the wars between the Zunghars and Khalkhas was over. During the Qianlong reign in 1751 and Jiaqing reign in 1801, the Qing emperors deliberately issued decrees eliminating Mongols from potential grooms of Qing princesses and started replacing them with majority Manchu grooms. The Qing at this time no longer needed the support of Mongols and started marrying off their daughters to majority Manchu grooms instead of Mongols.[75]
Ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing early on were sometimes married to Qing princesses due to the desperate need of the Qing for military allies at that time and their use of marrying their women off to get them, although this is less frequent than the case where Aisin Gioro women married to ethnic Mongol aristocrats or other Manchu elites. Unlike the marriage between Manchus and southern Mongols that lasted throughout the Qing dynasty, the marriages between Qing princesses and ethnic Han generals ceased before 1750 as Qing rule was consolidated by then.[75]
TheManchu imperialAisin Gioro clan practiced marriage alliances with Ming generals of Han descent and Mongol princes. Aisin Gioro women were married to ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing side during theTransition from Ming to Qing. The Later Jin leaderNurhaci married one of his granddaughters, a daughter ofAbatai, to the Ming generalLi Yongfang,[76][77][78][79] the ancestor of Li Shiyao (李侍堯).[80][81] The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" (三等子爵;sān děng zǐjué) title[82] after he surrenderedFushun inLiaoning to the Manchu in 1618. A mass marriage of Han officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto岳托 (Prince Keqin) and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.[83][84] Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han generalsSun Sike (孫思克),Geng Jimao,Shang Kexi, andWu Sangui.[85]
The "Dolo efu" 和碩額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses.Geng Zhongming, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his sonGeng Jingmao managed to have both his sonsGeng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under theShunzhi Emperor and marry Aisin Gioro women, with PrinceAbatai's granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 andHaoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong.[86] A daughter和硕柔嘉公主 of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo岳樂 (Prince An) was wedded toGeng Juzhong who was another son of Geng Jingmao.[87]
The 4th daughter of Kangxi (和硕悫靖公主) was wedded to the son (孫承恩) of Sun Sike (孫思克), an ethnic Han.[88]
Imperial Duke Who Assists the State (宗室輔國公) Aisin Gioro Suyan's (蘇燕) daughter was married to Han Banner generalNian Gengyao.[89][90][91] She was Manchu PrinceAjige's great-great-granddaughter.[92]
Manchu Prince Aisin GioroYuntang's fourth daughter married the Han Bannerman Zhao Shiyang (趙世揚) in 1721. Manchu Prince Aisin GioroYunsi's first daughter married the Han Bannerman Sun Wufu (孫五福) in July/August 1724. Manchu Prince Aisin GioroYunzhi, Prince Zhi's second daughter married the Han Bannerman Li Shu'ao (李淑鰲) in September/October 1707 and his fourth daughter married the Han Bannerman Sun Cheng'en (孫承恩) in February/March 1710.
TheLý dynasty married its princesses off to chieftains of the local clans in the northern mountains[93] and regional rivals to establish alliances with them, such as Princess Ngoạm Thiềm was married to the warlordNguyễn Nộn.
TheTran dynasty engaged in a similar practice, marrying Tran princesses to regional allies. There were two cases: PrincessAn Tư was married to the Mongol princeToghon and PrincessHuyền Trân who married to KingJaya Simhavarman III ofChampa.
The Cambodian KingChey Chettha II married the VietnameseNguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of LordNguyễn Phúc Nguyên, in 1618.[94][95] In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (nowBà Rịa), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquiallyreferred to asSài Gòn, and which later becameHo Chi Minh City.[96][97]
After theQing invasion of Joseon,Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their princesses as concubines to the Qing Prince RegentDorgon, an ethnic Manchu.[98][99][100][101][102][103][104] In 1650, Dorgon marriedPrincess Uisun (義順).[105] She came from a collateral branch of the royal family, and was the daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤).[106] Dorgon is said to have married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.[107]
^Lo, Ping-cheung (2015)."11 Legalism and offensive realism in the Chinese court debate on defending national security 81 BCE". In Lo, Ping-cheung; Twiss, Sumner B (eds.).Chinese Just War Ethics: Origin, Development, and Dissent. War, Conflict and Ethics (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 269.ISBN978-1317580973.There were altogether nine marriages of Han princesses (fake or real) to the Xiongnu during these roughly 60 years (for a complete list of details, see Cui 2007a, 555). We will call this policy Heqin Model One, and, as Ying-shih Yu ...
^Chin, Tamara T. (2020).Savage Exchange: Han Imperialism, Chinese Literary Style, and the Economic Imagination. Harvard University Studies in East Asian Law. BRILL. p. 225.ISBN978-1684170784.In the Han- Wusun alliance (unlike the Han- Xiongnu heqin agreements) the gifts flowed in the proper direction, ... Thus, while Empress Lü transgressed the heqin marriage in having a false princess sent, Liu Jing's original proposal ...
^Chin, Tamara Ta Lun (2005).Savage Exchange: Figuring the Foreign in the Early Han Dynasty. University of California, Berkeley. pp. 66, 73, 74.Figuring the Foreign in the Early Han Dynasty Tamara Ta Lun Chin ... Emperor Han Wudi's military push to reverse the power relations between Xiongnu and Han stands in stark contrast to the original ... Xiongnu with a false princess .
^Mosol, Lee (2013).Ancient History of the Manchuria. X libris Corporation. p. 77.ISBN978-1483667676.... 孝文皇帝 sent a girl as a new wife for the Chanyu as a 'fake princess of Royal family' with a eunuch named '中行 ... The Han lured the Xiongnu chief deep into the China proper town called "馬邑," but Gunchen Chanyu realized the trap ...
^The role of women in the Altaic world : Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001. Veit, Veronika, 1944-. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. 2007. p. 61.ISBN978-3-447-05537-6.OCLC182731462.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^Drompp, Michael R. (1999). "Breaking the Orkhon Tradition: Kirghiz Adherence to the Yenisei Region after A. D. 840".Journal of the American Oriental Society.119 (3):394–395.doi:10.2307/605932.JSTOR605932.
^Chen, Sanping (2011)."Two Notes on the Xiongnu Ancestry of the Authors of "Han-shu"".Central Asiatic Journal.55 (1):33–36.ISSN0008-9192.JSTOR41928567. Clark, Anthony E. (2008).Ban Gu's history of early China. Amherst (N.Y.): Cambria press. p. 183.ISBN978-1-60497-561-1. Clark, Anthony E. (2008).Ban Gu's history of early China. Amherst (N.Y.): Cambria press. p. 44.ISBN978-1-60497-561-1.The "Basic Annals of Emperor Wen" is a chapter that Biao seems to have written entirely. Ban Biao appears as the commentator in the final remarks of the chapter. The passage states, 贊曰﹕臣外祖兄弟為元帝侍中，語臣曰元帝多才藝，美史書．The Eulogy states: My (your minister's) maternal grandmother's older and younger brothers were made the palace retainers of Emperor Yuan. They informed me that Emperor Yuan had several talents in the arts and considered historical books attractive. The "minister" in this Eulogy is usually identified as Ban Biao. The Han commentator, Ying Shao, noted that "the annals of both Yuan and Cheng were written by Ban Biao; when 'chen' 臣 (i.e., 'minister') is used, the speaker is Biao. The distaff relative mentioned is Jin Chang" 元，成帝紀皆班固父彪所作，臣則彪自說也．外祖，金敞也.
^Tang, Qiaomei (May 2016).Divorce and the Divorced Woman in Early Medieval China (First through Sixth Century)(PDF) (A dissertation presented by Qiaomei Tang to The Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of East Asian Languages and Civilizations). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University. pp. 151, 152, 153.
^Gao Huan, as demanded by Yujiulü Anagui as one of the peace terms between Eastern Wei and Rouran, married the Princess Ruru in 545, and had her take the place of Princess Lou as his wife, but never formally divorced Princess Lou. After Gao Huan's death, pursuant to Rouran customs, the Princess Ruru became married to Gao Huan's son Gao Cheng, who also, however, did not formally divorce his wife.
^Tarling, Nicholas, ed. (1992).The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 144.ISBN978-0521663694.
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