Hephaestus (UK:/hɪˈfiːstəs/hih-FEE-stəs,US:/hɪˈfɛstəs/hih-FES-təs;eight spellings;Ancient Greek:Ἥφαιστος,romanized: Hḗphaistos) is theGreek god of artisans, blacksmiths, carpenters, craftsmen, fire,metallurgy, metalworking, sculpture, and volcanoes.[2] In Greek mythology, Hephaestus was the son ofHera, either on her own or by her husbandZeus. He was cast off Mount Olympus by his mother Hera because of hislameness, the result of a congenital impairment; or in another account, by Zeus for protecting Hera from his advances (in which case his lameness would have been the result of his fall rather than the reason for it).[3][4][5]
As a smithing god, Hephaestus created all the weapons of the gods in Olympus. He served as the blacksmith of the gods, and was worshipped in the manufacturing and industrial centres of Greece, particularlyAthens. The cult of Hephaestus was based inLemnos.[2] Hephaestus's symbols are a smith'shammer,anvil, and a pair oftongs. In Rome, he was equated withVulcan.[6]
Hephaestus is probably associated with theLinear B (Mycenaean Greek) inscription𐀀𐀞𐀂𐀴𐀍,A-pa-i-ti-jo, found atKnossos.[7] The inscription indirectly attests his worship at that time because it is believed that it reads thetheophoric name(H)āpʰaistios,[7] orHāphaistion.[8][9] The Greek theonymHēphaistos is most likely ofPre-Greek origin, as the form without-i- (AtticHēphastos) shows a typical Pre-Greek variation and points to an originalsy.[7]
Theepithets by which Hephaestus is known by the poets generally allude to his skill in theplastic arts or to his figure or disability. The Greeks frequently placed miniature statues of Hephaestus near their hearths, and these figures are the oldest of all his representations.[10] The meaning of some of his epithets are:[11]
Amphigyḗeis often translated as "the lame one"; literally "lame on both sides" vel sim. (Ἀμφιγυήεις)
Kyllopodíōn "club-footed" or "of dragging feet" (Κυλλοποδίων)
Khalkeús "coppersmith" (Χαλκεύς)
Klytotékhnēs "renowned artificer" (Κλυτοτέχνης)
Polýmētis "shrewd, crafty" or "of many devices" (Πολύμητις)
Aitnaîos "Aetnaean" (Αἰτναῖος), owing to his workshop supposedly being located belowMount Aetna.[12]
InHomer'sIliad, Hephaestus is described as the son ofHera; theIliad seemingly also refers to Zeus as his father at two points, though it is possible these passages are not referring to Hephaestus as Zeus's literal son. TheOdyssey does, however, refer explicitly to Hephaestus as having "two parents", the identity of whom would presumably be Zeus and Hera.[13] InHesiod'sTheogony, Hera gives birth to Hephaestus on her own, out of revenge forZeus having, without her, fatheredAthena (the daughter of Zeus andMetis).[14]Apollodorus similarly states that Hera gives birth to Hephaestus alone, though he also relates that, according to Homer, Hephaestus is one of the children of Zeus and Hera.[15] Several later texts follow Hesiod's account, includingHyginus, in the preface to hisFabulae. According to Attic vase painters, Hephaestus was present at the birth of Athena and wielded the axe with which he split Zeus's head to free her. Hephaestus is represented as older than Athena, so the mythology of Hephaestus is inconsistent in this respect.[citation needed]
Some sources state that the origin myth of Hephaestus was that of a "daemon of fire coming up from theEarth"—that he was also associated with gas "which takes fire and burns [and] is considered by many people to be divine" and that only later was a volcano considered Hephaestus's smithy.[16] He was associated by Greek colonists in southernItaly with thevolcano godsAdranus (ofMount Etna) andVulcanus of theLipari islands. The first-century sage,Apollonius of Tyana, is said to have observed, "there are many other mountains all over the earth that are on fire, and yet we should never be done with it if we assigned to them giants and gods like Hephaestus".[17] Nevertheless, Hephaestus's domain over fire goes back to Homer'sIliad, where he uses flames to dry the waters ofScamandrus River in order to force itseponymous deity, who was attackingAchilles, to retreat. His favourite place in the mortal world was the island ofLemnos, where he liked to dwell among the Sintians,[18] but he also frequented other volcanic islands such as Lipari, Hiera, Imbros and Sicily, which were called his abodes or workshops.[19]
In one branch of Greek mythology, Hera ejected Hephaestus from the heavens because of his congenital impairment. He fell into the ocean and was raised byThetis (mother ofAchilles and one of the 50Nereids) and theOceanidEurynome.[4]
In another account, Hephaestus, attempting to rescue his mother from Zeus's advances, was flung down from the heavens by Zeus. He fell for an entire day and landed on the island ofLemnos, where he was cared for and taught to be a master craftsman by theSintians – an ancient tribe native to that island.[5] Later writers describe his physical disability as the consequence of his second fall, while Homer makes him disabled from birth.
Hephaestus was one of the Olympians who returned to Olympus after being exiled.
In an archaic story,[a][20][21] Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by forging her a magical golden throne, which, when she sat on it, did not allow her to stand up again.[b] The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go, but he refused, saying "I have no mother".[21] It was Ares who undertook the task of fetching Hephaestus at first, but he was threatened by the fire god with torches.[22] At last,Dionysus, the god of wine, fetched him, intoxicated him with wine, and took the subdued smith back to Olympus on the back of a mule accompanied by revelers – a scene that sometimes appears on painted pottery of Attica and of Corinth.[23][24][25] According toHyginus, Zeus promised anything to Hephaestus in order to free Hera. Hephaestus asked for the hand of Athena in marriage (urged byPoseidon, who was hostile toward her), leading to his attempted rape of the goddess, who rejected his advances.[26] In another version, he demanded to be married to Aphrodite in order to release Hera, and his mother fulfilled the request.[27]
The theme of thereturn of Hephaestus, popular among the Attic vase-painters whose wares were favored among theEtruscans, may have introduced this theme to Etruria.[c][28][29] In the vase-painters' portrayal of the procession, Hephaestus was mounted on a mule or a horse, with Dionysus holding the bridle and carrying Hephaestus's tools (including adouble-headed axe). In the painted scenes, the padded dancers and phallic figures of the Dionysan throng leading the mule show that the procession was a part of thedithyrambic celebrations that were the forerunners of thesatyr plays of fifth-century Athens.[30][31] The travellerPausanias spoke of having seen a painting of Hephaestus in the temple of Dionysus in Athens. The temple had been built in the 5th century, but may have been decorated at any time before the 2nd century CE. When Pausanias saw it, he said:
There are paintings here – Dionysus bringing Hephaestus up to heaven. One of the Greek legends is that Hephaestus, when he was born, was thrown down by Hera. In revenge he sent as a gift a golden chair with invisible fetters. When Hera sat down she was held fast, and Hephaestus refused to listen to any other of the gods except Dionysus – in him he reposed the fullest trust – and after making him drunk Dionysus brought him to heaven.
Hephaestus had his own palace on Olympus, containing his workshop with anvil and twentybellows that worked at his bidding.[32] He crafted much of the magnificent equipment of the gods, and almost any finely wrought metalwork imbued with powers that appears in Greek myth is said to have been forged by Hephaestus. He designed all the thrones in the Palace of Olympus,[33] theAegisbreastplate,Hermes'swinged helmet andsandals,Aphrodite's famedgirdle,Eros's bow and arrows,Helios's chariot,Heracles's bronzeclappers, and the shoulder ofPelops.[34]
Hephaestus also created the gift that the gods gave to mankind: the first womanPandora and herpithos. In some versions of the myth,[35]Prometheus stole the fire that he gave to man from Hephaestus's forge.
According toHomer, Hephaestus builtautomatons of metal to work for him or others. This included tripods with golden wheels, able to move at his wish in and out the assembly hall of the celestials;[37] and "handmaidens wrought of gold in the semblance of living maids", who had "understanding in their hearts, and speech and strength", as a gift of the gods. They moved to support Hephaestus while walking.[38] Hephaestus also put golden and silver lions and dogs at the entrance of the palace ofAlkinoos in such a way that they could bite the invaders; these guard dogs did not age nor perish.[39]
A similar golden dog (Κυων Χρυσεος) was set by Rhea to guard the infant Zeus and his nurse, the goatAmaltheia, on the island of Krete. LaterTantalus was said to have stolen the automaton when it guarded Zeus's temple, or to have persuadedPandareos to steal it for him. Later texts attempt to replace the automaton with the idea that the golden dog was actuallyRhea, transformed by Hephaestus.[40]
Hephaestus fought against theGiants and killedMimas by throwing molten iron at him.[41] He also fought another Giant,Aristaeus, but he fled.[42] During the battle Hephaestus fell down exhausted, and was picked up by Helios in his chariot. As a gift of gratitude, Hephaestus forged four ever-flowing fountains and fire-breathing bulls for Helios's sonAeëtes.[43]
^Features within the narrative suggest to Kerenyi and others that it is archaic; the most complete literary account, however, is a late one, in the Roman rhetoricianLibanios, according to Hedreen (2004).
^A section "The Binding of Hera" is devoted to this archaic theme in Kerenyi (1951, pp 156–158), who refers to this "ancient story", which is one of the "tales of guileful deeds performed by cunning gods, mostly at a time when they had not joined the family on Olympus".
^The return of Hephaestus was painted on the Etruscan tomb at the "Grotta Campana" nearVeii was identified by Petersen (1902); the "well-known subject" was doubted in this instance by Harmon (1912).
At the marriage ofPeleus andThetis, Hephaestus gave a knife as a wedding present.[44][45] When the Trojan War began, Hephaestus sided with the Greeks and forged the armour ofAchilles, thecuirass ofDiomedes, andAgamemnon's staff of office,[34] but Hephaestus was also worshipped by the Trojans and saved one of their men from being killed by Diomedes.[46]
Mars andVenus Surprised byVulcan by Alexandre Charles Guillemot (1827)
Though married to Hephaestus, Aphrodite had an affair withAres, the god of war. Eventually, Hephaestus discovered Aphrodite's affair throughHelios, the all-seeing Sun, and planned a trap during one of their trysts. While the lovers lay together in bed, Hephaestus ensnared them in an unbreakable chain-link net so small as to be invisible and dragged them to Mount Olympus to shame them in front of the other gods for retribution.
The gods laughed at the sight of these naked lovers, andPoseidon persuaded Hephaestus to free them in return for a guarantee that Ares would pay the adulterer's fine, or that he, Poseidon, would pay it himself. Hephaestus states inThe Odyssey that he would return Aphrodite to her father and demand back his bride price. TheEmily Wilson translation depicts Hephaestus demanding/imploring Zeus before Poseidon offers, however, leading the reader to assume Zeus did not give back the "price" Hephaestus paid for his daughter and that this was the reason Poseidon intervened.[47] Some versions of the myth state that Zeus did not return the dowry, and in fact Aphrodite "simply charmed her way back again into her husband's good graces."[48] In theIliad, Hephaestus is described as married to theGraceCharis during the events depicted in theTrojan War,[49] while in theTheogony, he is married to the GraceAglaea.[50] The laterDionysiaca byNonnus explicitly states that, though Hephaestus and Aphrodite were once married (she is referred to as his "ancient wife"), that they have since separated and Hephaestus is now married to Charis.[51]
In a much later, interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldierAlectryon, by their door to warn them of Helios's arrival as he suspected that Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite's infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty.[52] Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus, as Ares, in rage, turned Alectryon into arooster, which always crows at dawn when the sun is about to rise.[53]
TheThebans told that the union of Ares and Aphrodite producedHarmonia, but that of the union of Hephaestus with Aphrodite, there was usually no issue. Because Harmonia was conceived during Aphrodite's marriage to Hephaestus, for revenge, on Harmonia's wedding day toCadmus, Hephaestus gifted her with a finely worked but cursednecklace that brought immense suffering to her descendants, culminating with the story ofOedipus.[54]
The author ofOctavia (traditionally attributed toSeneca, but now agreed to not be his) writes that "[we] delude ourselves that [Eros] was born from Venus and sprung from the loins of Vulcan", implying the notion that Eros/Cupid was the son of Vulcan/Hephaestus was a decently common one in late antiquity.[55]Nonnus also seemingly presents Eros as the son of Aphrodite and Hephaestus,[56] but it has been suggested that the use ofπολυφράδμων (a word that can mean both 'wise' and 'cunning') to describe Aphrodite and the emphasis given in Hephaestus fearing that Eros would be born crippled like him, only for the child to be abled-bodied, strongly implies that Nonnus means for Ares to be understood as the real father, while Aphrodite passed her son as Hephaestus'.[57][58] Ulrich von Wilamovitz's conjecture of a badly preserved scholium on theArgonautica to read thatIbycus made Eros the son of Aphrodite and Hephaestus is widely accepted by scholars, but cannot be proven as the ancient text is unreadable.[59]
Hephaestus was somehow connected with the archaic, pre-GreekPhrygian andThracian mystery cult of theKabeiroi, who were also called theHephaistoi, "the Hephaestus-men", in Lemnos. One of the three Lemnian tribes also called themselves Hephaestion and claimed direct descent from the god.
Athena Scorning the Advances of Hephaestus byParis Bordone (between c. 1555 and c. 1560)
Hephaestus is to the male gods as Athena is to the female goddesses, for he was believed to have taught the mortals crafts and arts alongside Athena.[60] At Athens, they had temples and festivals in common.[a] Both were believed to have great healing powers, and Lemnian earth (terra Lemnia), from the spot on which Hephaestus had fallen, was believed to cure madness, snakebite and haemorrhage; priests of Hephaestus knew how to cure wounds inflicted by snakes.[61] He was represented in the temple of Athena Chalcioecus (Athena of the Bronze House[62]) at Sparta, in the act of delivering his mother;[63] on the chest of Cypselus, giving Achilles's armor to Thetis;[64] and at Athens there was the famous statue of Hephaestus by Alcamenes, in which his physical disability was only subtly portrayed.[65] He had almost "no cults except in Athens".[16] The Greeks frequently placed miniature statues of Hephaestus near their hearths, and these figures are the oldest of all his representations.[66] InAthens, there is aTemple of Hephaestus, theHephaesteum (miscalled the "Theseum") near theagora. Athena is sometimes thought to be the "soulmate" of Hephaestus.[67] Nonetheless, Hephaestus "seeks impetuously and passionately to make love to Athena: at the moment of climax she pushes him aside, and his semen falls to the earth where it impregnates Gaia."[68]
An Athenianfounding myth tells that the city's patron goddess,Athena, refused a union with Hephaestus. Pseudo-Apollodorus[69] records an archaic legend, which claims that Hephaestus once attempted to rape Athena, but she pushed him away, causing him to ejaculate on her thigh.[70][71] Athena wiped thesemen off using a tuft ofwool, which she tossed into the dust, impregnatingGaia and causing her to give birth toErichthonius,[70][71] whom Athena adopted as her own child.[70]
The Roman mythographer Hyginus[69] records a similar story in which Hephaestus demanded Zeus to let him marry Athena since he was the one who had smashed open Zeus's skull, allowing Athena to be born.[70] Zeus agreed to this and Hephaestus and Athena were married,[70] but, when Hephaestus was about to consummate the union, Athena vanished from the bridal bed, causing him to ejaculate on the floor, thus impregnating Gaia with Erichthonius.[70][72] Nonnus refers to this tale of Erechthonius being born of the Earth after a "makeshift marriage", but says that Athena then nursed Erechthonius on her "manlike breast".[51]
According to most versions, Hephaestus's consort is Aphrodite. However, some sources say that Hephaestus is married to one of theCharites. In Book XVIII ofHomer'sIliad, the consort of Hephaestus isCharis, with whom he lives in a bronze-wrought home on Olympus.[49] The same name, Charis, is used later inLucian'sDialogues of the Gods[73] andNonnus'sDionysiaca.[51] However,Hesiod names the member of the Charites who is married to Hephaestus asAglaea,[50] and according to the fifth-century ADGreekNeoplatonistphilosopherProclus, by Hephaestus, Aglaea became the mother ofEucleia, Euthenia, Eupheme, and Philophrosyne.[74] Some scholars conclude that these references refer to the same goddess under different names,[75] although in theDionysiaca both Aglaea and Charis appear as separate characters (Aglaea refers to Charis as a separate attendant of Aphrodite when speaking toEros).[76]Károly Kerényi notes that "charis" also means "the delightfulness of art" and supposes that Aphrodite is viewed as a work of art, speculating that Aphrodite could also have been called Charis as an alternative name, for in theOdyssey Homer suddenly makes her his wife.[77]
On the island of Lemnos, however, Hephaestus's consort was the seanymphCabeiro, by whom he was the father of two metalworking gods named theCabeiri. In Sicily, he had another consort, the nymphAetna, and their sons were two gods of Siciliangeysers calledPalici, who are elsewhere called the sons ofZeus by Aetna, or of Zeus byThalia (another daughter of Hephaestus), or ofAdranos.[78]
Like many male Greek gods, Hephaestus fathered several children with mortals and immortals alike. The following is a list of Hephaestus's offspring, by various mothers. Beside each offspring, the earliest source to record the parentage is given, along with the century to which the source (in some cases approximately) dates.
Hephaestus and 2 assistants work on the arms forAchilles, the shield held up by Hephaestus and one of his assistants shows the mirror image ofThetis, sitting and watching the scene. Fresco fromPompeii.
Hephaestus was sometimes portrayed as a vigorous man with a beard and was characterized by his hammer or some other crafting tool, his oval cap, and thechiton.
Hephaestus is described in mythological sources as "lame" (chōlos) and "halting" (ēpedanos).[92] He was depicted with curved feet, an impairment he had either from birth or as a result of his fall from Olympus. In vase paintings, Hephaestus is sometimes shown bent over his anvil, hard at work on a metal creation, and sometimes his feet are curved back-to-front:Hephaistos amphigyēeis. He walked with the aid of a stick. TheArgonaut Palaimonius, "son of Hephaestus" (i.e. a bronze-smith), also had a mobility impairment.[93] Other "sons of Hephaestus" were theCabeiri on the island ofSamothrace, who were identified with thecrab (karkinos) by the lexicographerHesychius. The adjectivekarkinopous ("crab-footed") signified "lame", according to Detienne and Vernant.[94] The Cabeiri were also physically disabled.
In some myths, Hephaestus built himself a "wheeled chair" or chariot with which to move around, thus helping support his mobility while demonstrating his skill to the other gods.[95] In theIliad 18.371, it is stated that Hephaestus built twenty bronze-wheeled tripods to assist him in moving around.[96]
Hephaestus's appearance and physical disability are taken by some to representperipheral neuropathy andskin cancer resulting fromarsenicosis, caused byarsenic exposure from metalworking.[97] Bronze Age smiths added arsenic tocopper to produce harderarsenical bronze, especially during periods oftinscarcity. ManyBronze Age smiths would have suffered from chronic arsenic poisoning as a result of their livelihood. Consequently, the mythic image of the disabled smith is widespread. As Hephaestus was an iron-age smith, not a bronze-age smith, the connection is one from ancient folk memory.[98]
Solinus wrote that theLycians dedicated a city to Hephaestus and called it Hephaestia.[102]
TheHephaestia inLemnos was named after the god. In addition, the whole island of Lemnos was sacred to Hephaestus.[103]
Pausanias wrote that the Lycians inPatara had a bronze bowl in their temple ofApollo, saying thatTelephus dedicated it and Hephaestus made it.[104]
Pausanias also wrote that the village of Olympia in Elis contained an altar to the riverAlpheios, next to which was an altar to Hephaestus sometimes referred to as the altar of "Warlike Zeus."[105]
The islandThermessa, betweenLipari andSicily, was also called Hiera of Hephaestus (ἱερὰ Ἡφαίστου), meaning "sacred place of Hephaestus" in Greek.[106]
Pliny the Elder wrote that atCorycus, there was a stone which was called Hephaestitis or "Hephaestus stone". According to Pliny, the stone was red and reflected images like a mirror, and when boiling water was poured over it, it cooled immediately. Alternatively, when placed in the sun, it immediately set fire to a parched substance.[107]
^Guy Hedreen (2004) The Return of Hephaistos, Dionysiac Processional Ritual and the Creation of a Visual Narrative.The Journal of Hellenic Studies,124 (2004:38–64) p. 38 and note.
^Axel Seeberg (1965) Hephaistos Rides Again.The Journal of Hellenic Studies,85, pp. 102–109, describes and illustrates four pieces of Corinthian painted pottery with the theme
^A black red-figurecalpis in the collection of Marsden J. Perry was painted with the return of Hephaestus (Eldridge, 1917, pp 38–54).
^L. G. Eldridge (1917) An Unpublished Calpis.American Journal of Archaeology,21.1, pp 38–54 (January–March 1917).
^Slater, pp199-200 "And [Hera] was released only when she swore to the truth of his birth story, or, in another version, promised Aphrodite to her son."
^Petersen (1902)Über die älteste etruskische Wandmälerei, pp 149ff. Rome.
^A. M. Harmon (1912) The Paintings of the Grotta Campana.American Journal of Archaeology, 16.1, 1–10 (January–March 1912);
^The significance of the subject for the pre-history of Greek drama is argued by Webster (1958, pp 43ff.) and more recently by Hedreen (2004, pp 38–64).
^T.B.L. Webster (1958) Some thoughts on the pre-history of Greek drama.Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies,5, pp 43ff.
^Shorrock, Robert (2001).The Challenge of Epic: Allusive Engagement in the Dionysiaca of Nonnus. Mnemosyne. Vol. 20. BRILL publications. pp. 54–5.ISBN978-90-04-11795-2.
^Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 30; Val. Max. viii. 11. § 3
^Herod. iii. 37; Aristoph. Av. 436; Callim. Hymnn. in Dian. 60
^Stein,p. 11, which goes on to say: "Yet a kind of cloudy mysteriousness shrouds their relationship; no single tradition was ever clearly established on this subject, and so what confronts us is a blurred image based on rumors and conflicting reports."
^Detienne, Marcel; Vernant, Jean-Pierre (1978).Cunning Intelligence in Greek Culture and Society. Janet Lloyd, translator. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. pp. 269–272.ISBN978-0-391-00740-6. Cited bySilver, Morris (1992).Taking Ancient Mythology Economically. New York: Brill. p. 35 note 5.ISBN978-90-04-09706-3.
^Dolmage, Jay (2006). "'Breathe Upon Us an Even Flame': Hephaestus, History, and the Body of Rhetoric".Rhetoric Review.25 (2): 119–140 [p. 120].doi:10.1207/s15327981rr2502_1.S2CID17273927.
^Murray, A.T."The Iliad 18.371".Perseus. Tufts University. Retrieved21 March 2017.
^According toHesiod,Theogony927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.
^According toHesiod'sTheogony886–890, of Zeus's children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.
^According toHesiod,Theogony183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus's severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.
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