Henry IV (French:Henri IV; 13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610), also known by the epithetsGood King Henry (le Bon Roi Henri) orHenry the Great (Henri le Grand), wasKing of Navarre (asHenry III) from 1572 andKing of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first monarch of France from theHouse of Bourbon, acadet branch of theCapetian dynasty. He pragmatically balanced the interests of theCatholic andProtestant parties in France, as well as among the European states. He was assassinated in Paris in 1610 by aCatholic zealot, and was succeeded by his sonLouis XIII.
Henry was baptised aCatholic but raised as aHuguenot in theProtestant faith by his mother, QueenJeanne III of Navarre. He inherited the throne of Navarre in 1572 on his mother's death. As a Huguenot, Henry was involved in theFrench Wars of Religion, barely escaping assassination in theSt. Bartholomew's Day massacre. He later led Protestant forces against the French royal army. Henry inherited the throne of France in 1589 upon the death ofHenry III. Henry IV initially kept the Protestant faith (the only French king to do so) and had to fight against theCatholic League, which refused to accept a Protestant monarch. After four years of military stalemate, Henry converted to Catholicism, reportedly saying that "Paris is well worth aMass". As a pragmatic politician (politique), he promulgated theEdict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants, thereby effectively ending the French Wars of Religion.
An active ruler, Henry worked to regularize state finance, promote agriculture, and encourage education. He began the first successfulFrench colonization of the Americas. He promoted trade and industry, and prioritized the construction of roads, bridges, and canals to facilitate communication within France and strengthen the country's cohesion. These efforts stimulated economic growth and improved living standards.
While the Edict of Nantes brought religious peace to France, some hardline Catholics and Huguenots remained dissatisfied, leading to occasional outbreaks of violence and conspiracies. Henry IV also faced resistance from certain noble factions who opposed his centralization policies, leading to political instability. His main foreign policy success was thePeace of Vervins in 1598, which made peace in the long-running conflict with Spain. He formed a strategic alliance with England. He also forged alliances with Protestant states, such as theDutch Republic and several German states, to counter the Catholic powers. His policies contributed to the stability and prominence of France in European affairs.
Henry spent part of his early childhood in the countryside of Béarn at the Château deCoarraze. He frequented the peasants during his hunting trips, and acquired the nickname of "miller ofBarbaste" (meunier de Barbaste).[5][6] Faithful to the spirit ofCalvinism, Henry's mother Jeanne d'Albret raised him in its strict morality, according to the precepts of theReformation.[7] On the accession ofCharles IX of France in 1561, Henry was brought to live at the French court in Paris by his father Antoine de Bourbon. Henry's parents disagreed on the choice of his religion, with his mother seeking to educate him in Calvinism, and his father in Catholicism.
During theFirst French War of Religion (1562–1563), Henry was moved toMontargis for his safety, where he was placed under the protection ofRenée of France. After his father's death and the end of the war, he was kept at the French court as a guarantor of the agreement between the monarchy and the Queen of Navarre. Jeanne d'Albret obtained control of his education from Catherine de' Medici and his appointment as governor ofGuyenne in 1563.[6] Between 1564 and 1566, Henry accompanied the French royal family in itsgrand tour of France, and on this occasion reencountered his mother, whom he had not seen for two years. In 1567, Jeanne d'Albret brought him back to live with her in Béarn.
In 1568, Henry took part as an observer in his first military campaign in Navarre, and continued his military instruction during the Third War of Religion (1568–1570). Under the tutelage ofHuguenot leaderGaspard II de Coligny, he witnessed the battles ofJarnac,La Roche-l'Abeille, andMoncontour. He saw combat for the first time in 1570, at theBattle of Arnay-le-Duc [fr].[8]
King of Navarre
First marriage and Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre
On 9 June 1572, at the death of his mother Queen Jeanne, the 19-year-old Henry becameKing of Navarre.[9] Upon his accession, it was arranged for Henry to marryMargaret of Valois, daughter of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici. The wedding took place in Paris on 18 August 1572 on theparvis ofNotre Dame Cathedral.[10]
On 24 August, theSt. Bartholomew's Day massacre began in Paris. Several thousand Protestants who had come to Paris for Henry's wedding were killed, as well as thousands more throughout the country in the days that followed. Henry narrowly escaped death thanks to the help of his wife and his promise to convert to Catholicism. He was forced to live at the court of France, but he escaped in early 1576. On 5 February of that year, he formally abjured Catholicism atTours and rejoined the Protestant forces in the military conflict.[9] He named his 16-year-old sister,Catherine de Bourbon, regent of Béarn. Catherine held the regency for nearly thirty years.
Henry becameheir presumptive to the French throne in 1584 upon the death ofFrancis, Duke of Anjou, brother and heir to the CatholicHenry III, who had succeededCharles IX in 1574. Given that Henry of Navarre was the next senioragnatic descendant of KingLouis IX, King Henry III had no choice but to recognise him as the legitimate successor.[11]
King Henry of Navarre, heir presumptive to the French throne and leader of theHuguenots, supported byElizabeth I of England and the Protestant princes of Germany; and
Salic law barred inheritance by the king's sisters and all others who could claim descent through only the female line. However, since Henry of Navarre was a Huguenot, many Catholics refused to acknowledge the succession, and France was plunged into a phase of the Wars of Religion known as theWar of the Three Henrys (1587–1589).
The Duke of Guise pushed for complete suppression of the Huguenots and had much support among Catholic loyalists. Political disagreements among the parties set off a series of campaigns and counter-campaigns that culminated in theBattle of Coutras.[12]
In December 1588, King Henry III had the Duke of Guise murdered,[13] along with his brother Louis, Cardinal of Guise,[14] thinking the removal of the brothers would restore his authority. However, the populace was horrified and rose against him. The King was no longer recognized in several cities; his effective power was limited toBlois, Tours, and the surrounding districts.
In the general chaos, Henry III relied on Henry of Navarre and his Huguenots. The two kings were united by a common interest—to win France from the Catholic League. Henry III recognized the King of Navarre as a true subject and Frenchman, not a fanatic Huguenot aiming to subjugate Catholics, and Catholic royalist nobles also rallied to them. With this combined force, the two kings marched to Paris. The morale of the city was low, and even the Spanish ambassador believed the city could not hold out longer than a fortnight. However, on 2 August 1589, a monk infiltrated Henry III's camp and assassinated him.[15]
When Henry III died, his ninth cousin once removed, Henry of Navarre, nominally became king of France. The Catholic League, however, strengthened by foreign support—especially from Spain—was strong enough to prevent a universal recognition of his new title.Pope Sixtus V excommunicated Henry and declared him ineligible to inherit the crown.[16] Most of the Catholic nobles who had joined Henry III for the siege of Paris also refused to recognize Henry of Navarre, and abandoned him. He set about winning his kingdom by force of arms, aided by English money and German troops. Henry's Catholic uncleCharles, Cardinal de Bourbon was proclaimed king by the League, but the Cardinal was Henry's prisoner at the time.[17] Henry was victorious at theBattle of Arques and theBattle of Ivry, but failed to take Paris afterbesieging it in 1590.[18]
When Cardinal de Bourbon died in 1590, the League could not agree on a new candidate at theEstates General called to settle the question, also attended by the envoys of Spain. While some supported various Guise candidates, the strongest candidate was probably theInfanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain, daughter ofPhilip II of Spain, whose motherElisabeth had been the eldest daughter ofHenry II of France.[19] In the religious fervor of the time, the Infanta was considered a suitable queen, provided she married a suitable husband. The French overwhelmingly rejected Philip's first choice,Archduke Ernest of Austria, the Emperor's brother, also a member of theHouse of Habsburg. In case of such opposition, Philip indicated that princes of the House of Lorraine would be acceptable to him: the Duke of Guise; a son of the Duke of Lorraine; and the son of the Duke of Mayenne. The Spanish ambassadors selected the Duke of Guise, to the joy of the League. However, at that moment of seeming victory, the envy of the Duke of Mayenne was aroused, and he blocked the proposed election of a king.
Jeton with portrait of King Henry IV, made inNuremberg (Germany) by Hans Laufer
TheParlement of Paris also upheld the Salic law. They argued that if the French accepted natural hereditary succession, as proposed by the Spaniards, and accepted a woman as their queen, then the ancient claims of the English kings would be confirmed, and the monarchy of centuries past would be rendered illegal.[20] The Parlement admonished Mayenne, as lieutenant-general, that the kings of France had resisted the interference of the pope in political matters, and that he should not raise a foreign prince or princess to the throne of France under the pretext of religion. Mayenne was angered that he had not been consulted prior to this admonishment, but yielded, since their aim was not contrary to his present views. Despite these setbacks for the League, Henry remained unable to take control of Paris.
Conversion to Catholicism: "Paris is well worth a Mass" (1593)
Entrance of Henry IV in Paris, 22 March 1594, with 1,500cuirassiers
On 25 July 1593, with the encouragement of his mistress,Gabrielle d'Estrées, Henry permanently renounced Protestantism and converted to Catholicism to secure his hold on the French crown,[21] thereby earning the resentment of theHuguenots and his allyElizabeth I of England. He was said to have declared thatParis vaut bien une messe ("Paris is well worth aMass"),[22][23][24] although the attribution is doubtful.[25][26] His acceptance of Catholicism secured the allegiance of the vast majority of his subjects.
Coronation and recognition (1594–1595)
Reims, traditional coronation place of French kings, was still occupied by the Catholic League, and thus Henry was crowned King of France at theCathedral of Chartres on 27 February 1594.[27]Pope Clement VIIIlifted excommunication from Henry on 17 September 1595.[28] He did not forget his former Calvinist coreligionists, however, and was known for his religious tolerance. In 1598 he issued theEdict of Nantes, which granted circumscribed liberties to the Huguenots.[29]
Henry IV successfully ended the civil wars. He and his ministers appeased Catholic leaders using bribes of about 7 million écus, a sum greater than France's annual revenue. In combination with other fiscal problems, the king was faced with a financial crisis by the middle of the 1590s. In response to this crisis, Henry resolved to convene anAssembly of Notables in November 1596 that he hoped would approve the creation of new royal revenues.[30][31] The assembly approved the creation of a new tax on goods entering towns that would be known as thepancarte, however in 1597 the crown was again rocked by military crisis when theSpanish seized Amiens.[32][33][34][35]
Huguenot leaders were placated by theEdict of Nantes, which had four separate sections. The articles laid down the tolerance which would be accorded to the Huguenots including the exact places where worship may or may not take place, the recognition of three Protestant universities, and the allowance of Protestant synods. The king also issued two personal documents (calledbrevets) which recognized the Protestant establishment. The Edict of Nantes signed religious tolerance into law, and the brevets were an act of benevolence that created a Protestant state within France.[32]
Despite this, it would take years to restore law and order to France. The Edict was met by opposition from theparlements, which objected to the guarantees offered to Protestants. TheParlement de Rouen did not formally register the edict until 1609, although it begrudgingly observed its terms.[36]
During his reign, Henry IV worked through the ministerMaximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully, to regularize state finance, promote agriculture, drain swamps, undertake public works, and encourage education. He established theCollège Royal Henri-le-Grand inLa Flèche (today thePrytanée Militaire de la Flèche). He and Sully protected forests from further devastation, built a system of tree-lined highways, and constructed bridges and canals. He had a 1200-metre canal built in the park at theChâteau Fontainebleau (which may be fished today) and ordered the planting of pines, elms, and fruit trees.
The King restored Paris as a great city, with thePont Neuf, which still stands today, constructed over the riverSeine to connect theRight andLeft Banks of the city. Henry IV also built thePlace Royale (known since 1800 asPlace des Vosges), and added theGrande Galerie to theLouvre Palace. Stretching more than 400 metres along the Seine river bank, at the time it was the longest edifice of its kind in the world. He promoted the arts among all classes of people, and invited hundreds of artists and craftsmen to live and work on the building's lower floors. This tradition continued for another two hundred years, until ended byNapoleon I. The art and architecture of his reign have become known as theHenry IV style.
Economically, Henry IV sought to reduce imports of foreign goods tosupport domestic manufacturing. To this end, new sumptuary laws limited the use of imported gold and silver cloth. He also built royal factories to produce luxuries such as crystal glass, silk, satin, and tapestries (atGobelins Manufactory andSavonnerie manufactory workshops). The king re-established silk weaving in Tours andLyon, and increasedlinen production inPicardy andBrittany. He had distributed 16,000 free copies of the practical manualThe Theatre of Agriculture by Olivier de Serres.[37]
Engraving of Henry IVDemi-écu coin of Henry IV,Saint Lô (1589)
During the reign of Henry IV, rivalry continued among France,Habsburg Spain, and theHoly Roman Empire for the mastery of Western Europe. The conflict was not resolved until after theThirty Years' War.
During Henry's struggle for the crown, Spain had been the principal backer of the Catholic League, and it tried to thwart Henry. Underthe Duke of Parma, an army from theSpanish Netherlands intervened in 1590 against Henry and foiled his siege of Paris. Another Spanish army helped the Catholic League nobles opposing Henry to win theBattle of Craon in 1592. The Spanish war was not ended with Henry's coronation, but after his victory at theSiege of Amiens in September 1597, thePeace of Vervins was signed in 1598. This freed his armies to settle thedispute with theDuchy of Savoy, ending with theTreaty of Lyon of 1601, which arranged territorial exchanges.
One of Henry's major problems was theSpanish Road which traversed Spanish territory throughSavoy to the Low Countries. His first opportunity to cut the Spanish Road was a dispute over the ownership of theMarquisate of Saluzzo. The last marquis left Saluzzo to the French crown in 1548 (when Savoy was occupied by France), but the territory became disputed during the chaos of the Wars of Religion. The pope was asked toarbitrate between the claims of France and the Duke of Savoy. The Duke offered to cedeBresse to France if he could retain Saluzzo. Henri IV accepted this, but Spain objected that Bresse was a vital part of the Spanish Road, and persuaded the Duke to reject the decision. Henry IV was already atLyon and had soldiers ready, and four days later he marched fifty thousand men against the duchy, occupying almost all of its area west of the Alps. In January 1601, Henry accepted another offer of papal arbitration and gained not only Bresse, butBugey andGex. Savoy retained a narrow corridor through theVal de Chézery. This still allowed Spanish troops to cross fromLombardy toFranche Comté without going through France, but it created a choke point where the Spanish Road was a single bridge across theRhône River.[40]
The Saluzzo conflict was Henry IV's last major military operation, but he continued to finance Spain's enemies. He generously assisted theDutch Republic with over 12 million livres between 1598 and 1610. In some years, the payment was 10% of France's total annual budget. France also sent subsidies toGeneva after the Duke of Savoyattempted to capture the city in 1602.[40]
Holy Roman Empire
In 1609, the death of the childlessJohann William,Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, meant that the succession of the wealthy Duchies was in dispute. Henry aimed to maintain peace among the Protestant princes of the Holy Roman Empire to present a united front against the Habsburgs. To achieve this, Henry encouraged a peaceful settlement over the succession between the two main Protestant claimants:Wolfgang Wilhelm of Palatinate-Neuburg andJohann Sigismund of Brandenburg. He communicated this withMaurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, a significant Protestant leader, who then sought to facilitate an agreement between Wolfgang and Johann Sigismund. When peace was negotiated in theTreaty of Dortmund, Henry sent congratulatory messages to the Protestant claimants, and voiced his support, particularly against the Habsburgs who were likely to challenge the treaty.[41]
When Habsburg forces invaded Jülich, starting theWar of the Jülich Succession, Henry decided to act. On 29 July, after consulting his advisors, Henry ordered a French army to support the Protestant claimants.[41]Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully, his financial advisor, was particularly keen on joining the war, as France's finances at the time were secure. Henry declared that he was defending the rights of the Imperial princes, and also that he was honoring his previously agreements to defend the Protestant claimants. Henry also was seeking to curb the power of the Habsburgs.[41]
Henry's actions faced critique. Some saw him as a warmonger. ThePapacy in particular was concerned that Henry was supporting Protestant princes. Henry responded to the papacy declaring that he was keeping the peace.[41] When Habsburg ambassadors told Henry that he was contributing to the decline of Catholicism by supporting the Protestant claimants, Henry declared that he was merely trying to contain the Habsburgs. He also warned the Papacy to keep religion out of succession affairs. France assured the Protestant princes of the Empire that despite being Catholic, the French would still provide aid. Henry also sought to gain the aid of the English and Dutch. Henry greatly pressured the Dutch for support, appealing directly tostates-general.[41]
Despite Henry's defense of the Protestant princes during the Jülich War, many of the German states distrusted him. Afterall, Henry had converted to Catholicism in 1593. Also, France owed debts to some German states, which France struggled to repay. There were also concerns that Henry sought to become Emperor. It was widely believed that in 1610 Henry was preparing to escalate the war against theHoly Roman Empire, which was prevented by his assassination and the subsequent rapprochement with Spain under the regency ofMarie de' Medici.
Even before Henry's accession to the French throne, the French Huguenots were in contact with AragoneseMoriscos in plans against the Habsburg government of Spain in the 1570s.[43] Around 1575, plans were made for a combined attack of Aragonese Moriscos and Huguenots fromBéarn under Henry against SpanishAragon, in agreement with the Dey ofAlgiers and theOttoman Empire, but this project floundered with the arrival ofJohn of Austria in Aragon and the disarmament of the Moriscos.[44][45] In 1576, a three-pronged Ottoman fleet fromConstantinople was planned to disembark betweenMurcia andValencia while the French Huguenots would invade from the north and the Moriscos accomplish their uprising, but the fleet failed to arrive.[44]
Under Henry IV, various enterprises were set up to develop long-distance trade. In December 1600, a company was formed through the association ofSaint-Malo,Laval, andVitré to trade with theMoluccas and Japan.[49] Two ships, theCroissant and theCorbin, were sent around theCape of Good Hope in May 1601. TheCorbin was wrecked in theMaldives, leading to the adventure ofFrançois Pyrard de Laval, who managed to return to France in 1611.[49][50] TheCroissant, carryingFrançois Martin de Vitré, reachedCeylon and traded withAceh inSumatra, but was captured by the Dutch on the return leg atCape Finisterre.[49][50] François Martin de Vitré was the first Frenchman to write an account of travels to the Far East in 1604, at the request of Henry IV.[51]
From 1604 to 1609, following the return of François Martin de Vitré, Henry attempted to set up aFrench East India Company on the model of England and the Netherlands.[50][51][52] On 1 June 1604, he issued letters patent toDieppe merchants to form thefirst French East Indies Company, giving them exclusive rights to Asian trade for 15 years, but no ships were sent until 1616.[49] In 1609, another adventurer,Pierre-Olivier Malherbe, returned from a circumnavigation of the globe and informed Henry of his adventures.[51] He had visited China and India, and met with EmperorAkbar.[51]
Religion
Historians have assessed that Henry IV was a convincedCalvinist, and only changed his formal religious confession to achieve his political goals. Henry IV was baptized as aCatholic on 5 January 1554. He was raised in the Reformed Tradition by his motherJeanne III of Navarre. In 1572, after the massacre of French Calvinists, he was forced byCatherine de' Medici and the royal court to convert. In 1576, after escaping from Paris, he abjured Catholicism and returned to Calvinism. In 1593, to gain recognition asKing of France, he converted again to Catholicism. Although a formal Catholic, he valued his Calvinist upbringing and was tolerant toward theHuguenots until his death in 1610, and issued theEdict of Nantes which granted them many concessions.
Henry wasnicknamedHenrile Grand (the Great), and in France is also calledle bon roi Henri (good king Henry) andle vert galant (The Green Gallant) for his numerous mistresses.[38][53] In English he is most often referred to as Henry of Navarre.
Relationship with Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency
In 1609, Henry had grown infatuated withCharlotte Marguerite de Montmorency,Princess of Condé, much to the chagrin of her husband,Henry II, Prince of Condé. On 28 November 1609, the Prince and Princess fled toBrussels in theSpanish Netherlands. King Henry was furious, and believed that the Prince was conspiring against him, so he threatened to raise an army of 60,000 to capture him and bring back the princess. This corresponded with the War of the Jülich Succession, so it added to the tension, especially with Spain.[41]
Though generally well-liked, Henry was considered a heretical usurper by some Catholics and a traitor to their faith by some Protestants.[54] Henry was the target of at least 12 assassination attempts, including byPierre Barrière in August 1593,[55] and byJean Châtel in December 1594.[56]
Henry was killed in Paris on 14 May 1610 byFrançois Ravaillac, a Catholic zealot who stabbed him while his coach was stopped onRue de la Ferronnerie. The carriage was stopped by traffic congestion associated with the Queen's coronation ceremony, as depicted in the engraving byGaspar Bouttats.[57][58]Hercule de Rohan, riding in the coach with the king, was wounded in the attack but survived. Ravaillac was immediately seized, and executed days later. Henry was buried at theSaint Denis Basilica. His widow,Marie de' Medici, served as regent for their nine-year-old son,Louis XIII, until 1617.[59]
In 1614, four years after Henry IV's death, hisstatue was erected on thePont Neuf. During the early phase of theFrench Revolution, when it aimed to create aconstitutional monarchy rather than a republic, Henry IV was held up as a model for KingLouis XVI. When the Revolution radicalized and came to reject monarchy altogether, Henry IV's statue was torn down along with other royal monuments. It was nevertheless the first to be rebuilt, in 1818, and it still stands on the Pont Neuf today.[60]
Henry IV was much lauded during theBourbon Restoration (1814–30), as the restored dynasty was keen to play down the controversial reigns ofLouis XV andLouis XVI in favor of Good King Henry.[61] The songMarche Henri IV (Long Live Henry IV) was popular.[62] After the assassination in 1820 of the indirect heir to the throne,Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry, by a Republican fanatic, his widowPrincess Caroline gave birth seven months later totheir son, heir to the throne of France, and conspicuously named himHenri after his royal forefather.
The boy was baptised withJurançon wine and garlic in the tradition of Béarn and Navarre, as Henry IV had been baptised in Pau.[63] Henry serves as a loose inspiration for the character Ferdinand, King of Navarre, in William Shakespeare's 1590s playLove's Labour's Lost.[64]
A 1661 biography,Histoire du Roy Henry le Grand,[65] was written byHardouin de Péréfixe de Beaumont for the edification of Henry's grandsonLouis XIV.[citation needed][66] A 1663 English translation was published for another grandson, KingCharles II of England.[67] On 14 September 1788, when anti-tax riots broke out during the incipientFrench Revolution, rioters stopped travellers and demanded they dismount to salute Henry IV's statue.[68] Henry's minister Sully published hisRoyal Economies in 1611 after de Sully's fall from power, but subsequent research has shown that it exaggerates the economic accomplishments of Sully's ministry. Many of the official source documents were altered, or even forged to make them more impressive.[69]
On 18 August 1572, Henry married his second cousinMargaret of Valois. The marriage was not a happy one, and the couple was childless. Henry and Margaret separated even before Henry acceded to the throne in August 1589; Margaret retired to theChâteau d'Usson in theAuvergne and lived there for many years. After Henry became king of France, it was of the utmost importance that he provide an heir to the crown to avoid the problem of a disputed succession.
Henry favoured the idea of obtaining an annulment of his marriage to Margaret and marrying his mistress Gabrielle d'Estrées, who had already borne him three children. Henry's councillors strongly opposed this idea, but the matter was resolved unexpectedly by Gabrielle's sudden death in the early hours of 10 April 1599, after she had given birth to a premature stillborn son. His marriage to Margaret was annulled in 1599. On 17 December 1600, Henry marriedMarie de' Medici, daughter ofFrancesco I de' Medici,Grand Duke of Tuscany, andArchduchess Joanna of Austria.[71]
For theroyal entry of Marie intoAvignon on 19 November 1600, the citizens bestowed on Henry the title of theHercule Gaulois ("Gallic Hercules"), concocting a genealogy that traced the House of Navarre back to a nephew ofHercules' sonHispalus.[72] His marriage to Marie de' Medici produced six children:
^abcdefAnderson, Alison D. (1999).On the verge of war: international relations and the Jülich-Kleve succession crises (1609–1614). Studies in Central European histories. Boston: Humanities Press.ISBN978-0-391-04092-2.
^A history of modern India, 1480–1950, Claude Markovits p. 144: The account of the experiences of François Martin de Vitré "incited the king to create a company in the image of that of the United Provinces"
^l'Académie française: Dictionnaire de la langue française (Institut de France. 6th edition. 1835): 'C'est un vert galant' se dit d'un homme vif, alerte, qui aime beaucoup les femmes et qui s'empresse à leur plaire. É.Littré: Dictionnaire Française (Hachette. 1863):Hommme vif, alerte, vigoreux et particulièrement empressé auprès de femmes. Grand Larousse de la Langue Française (Paris. 1973):Homme entreprenant auprès de femmes. And see Discussion under the heading Vert Galant – A look at the Dictionaries
^Pierre Miquel,Les Guerres de religion, Paris, Club France Loisirs (1980)ISBN2-7242-0785-8, p. 399
^Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 5".The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793. Translated by N.F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.Three weeks later, September 14, 1788, when the retirement of Lamoignon became known, the riotings were renewed. The mob rushed to set fire to the houses of the two ministers, Lamoignon and Brienne, as well as to that of Dubois. The troops were called out, and in the Rue Mélée and the Rue de Grenelle there was a horrible slaughter of poor folk who could not defend themselves. Dubois fled from Paris. "The people themselves would execute justice," said Les deux amis de la liberté. Later still, in October 1788, when the parlement that had been banished to Troyes was recalled, "the clerks and the populace" illuminated the Place Dauphine for several evenings in succession. They demanded money from the passersby to expend on fireworks, and forced gentlemen to alight from their carriages to salute the statue of Henri Quatre.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
Holt, Mack P. (1995).The French Wars of Religion, 1562-1629. Cambridge University Press.
Kamen, Henry, ed. (2000). "Henri IV Bourbon".Who's Who in Europe 1450–1750. The Routledge who's who series. London: Routledge. p. 145.ISBN0-4151-4727-1.
Knecht, Robert J. (2013).The French Civil Wars: 1562–1598. London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-5820-9549-6.
Knecht, Robert J. (2014).Hero or Tyrant? Henry III, King of France, 1574–89. London: Routledge.ISBN978-1-4724-2930-8.
Le Roux, Nicolas (2022).1559-1629 Les Guerres de Religion. Gallimard.
Major, J. Russell (1974). "Bellièvre, Sully, and the Assembly of Notables of 1596".Transactions of the American Philosophical Society.64 2.
Moote, A. Lloyd (1989).Louis XIII, the Just. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-5200-7546-7.OL2040742M.
Parker, Geoffrey (1979).Europe in Crisis: 1598–1648. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.ISBN978-0-6312-2028-2.
Pernot, Michel (1987).Les Guerres de Religion en France 1559-1598. Sedes.
Pitts, Vincent J. (2009).Henri IV of France: His Reign and Age. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN978-1-4214-0578-0.online
Further reading
Baumgartner, Frederic J. (1995).France in the Sixteenth Century. London: Macmillan.ISBN978-0-3336-2088-5.
Bryson, David M. (1999).Queen Jeanne and the Promised Land: Dynasty, Homeland, Religion and Violence in Sixteenth-century France. Leiden; Boston, MA: Brill Academic.ISBN978-9-0041-1378-7.
Buisseret, David (1990).Henry IV, King of France. New York: Routledge.ISBN978-0-0444-5635-3.
Cameron, Keith, ed. (1989).From Valois to Bourbon: Dynasty, State & Society in Early Modern France. Exeter: University of Exeter.ISBN978-0-8598-9310-7.
Crawford, Katherine B. "The politics of promiscuity: Masculinity and heroic representation at the court of Henry IV."French Historical Studies 26.2 (2003): 225–252.
Mousnier, Roland (1973).The Assassination of Henry IV: The Tyrannicide Problem and the Consolidation of the French Absolute Monarchy in the Early Seventeenth Century. Translated by Joan Spencer. London: Faber & Faber.ISBN978-0-6841-3357-7.
Pettegree, Andrew (2002).Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Oxford: Blackwell.ISBN978-0-6312-0704-7.
Salmon, J.H.M. (1975).Society in Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century. London: Ernest Benn.ISBN978-0-5102-6351-5.
Sutherland, N.M. (1973).The Massacre of St. Bartholomew and the European Conflict, 1559–1572. London: Macmillan.ISBN978-0-3331-3629-4.
——— (1984).Princes, Politics and Religion, 1547–1589. London: Hambledon Press.ISBN978-0-9076-2844-6.
——— (2002).Henry IV of France and the Politics of Religion, 1572–1596. 2 volumes. Bristol: Elm Bank.ISBN978-1-8415-0846-7.
Wolfe, Michael (1993).The Conversion of Henri IV: Politics, Power, and Religious Belief in Early Modern France. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.ISBN0-6741-7031-8
_-_Henri_IV%2c_King_of_France_(1553-1610)_-_RCIN_402972_-_Royal_Collection.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
