The1929 Hebron massacre of nearly 70 Jews and theArab uprising of 1936–39 led the British government to evacuate the Jewish community from Hebron. The1948 Arab–Israeli War saw the entire West Bank, including Hebron,occupied and annexed byJordan, and since the 1967Six-Day War, the city has been underIsraeli control. Following Israeli occupation, Jewish presence was restored in the city. Since the 1997Hebron Protocol, most of Hebron has been governed by thePalestinian National Authority. The city is often described as a "microcosm" of theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict and theIsraeli occupation of the West Bank. The 1997 protocol divided the city into two sectors—H1 Hebron, governed by the Palestinian National Authority, and H2 Hebron, occupied by Israeli authorities. All security arrangements and travel permits for local residents are coordinated between the Palestinian Authority and Israel via theCOGAT. The Jewish settlers have their own governing municipal body, the Committee of the Jewish Community of Hebron.
The largest city in the southern West Bank, Hebron is a chief commercial and industrial center in the region. It is a busy hub of trade, generating roughly a third of the area'sGDP, largely due to the sale oflimestone from quarries in its area. Hebron has a local reputation for its grapes, figs, ceramics, plastics,pottery workshops, metalworking andglassblowing industry. The city is home to numerous shopping malls. TheOld City of Hebron features narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and oldbazaars. It is recognized as aWorld Heritage Site by theUNESCO. Hebron is also known as a regional educational and medical hub.
Etymology
The nameHebron appears to trace back to twonorthwest Semitic languages, which coalesce in the formḥbr,[b] having reflexes inHebrew andAmorite, with a basic sense of 'unite' and connoting a range of meanings from 'colleague' to 'friend'. In the proper nameHebron, the original sense may have been 'alliance'.[8]
Early Muslim sources refer to the city asḤabra (حبرة) orḤabrūn (حبرون).[9]al-Khalīl emerged as the Arabic name for the city in the 13th century,[9] derived from theQur'anic epithet forAbraham,Khalīl al-Raḥmān ('Friend ofthe Merciful [ie.God]').[10][11] Thus, the epithet is acalque of the original HebrewtoponymḤeḇrōn, understood asḥaḇēr ('friend').[12]
Archaeological excavations reveal traces of strong fortifications dated to the EarlyBronze Age, covering some 24–30dunams centered aroundTel Rumeida. The city flourished in the 17th–18th centuries BCE before being destroyed by fire, and was resettled in the late Middle Bronze Age.[13][14] This older Hebron was originally aCanaanite royal city.[15]Abrahamic legend associates the city with theHittites.[clarification needed] It has been conjectured that Hebron might have been the capital ofShuwardata ofGath, anIndo-European contemporary of Jerusalem's regent,Abdi-Ḫeba,[16] although the Hebron hills were almost devoid of settlements in the Late Bronze Age.[17]
TheAbrahamic traditions associated with Hebron are nomadic. This may also reflect aKenite element, since the nomadic Kenites are said to have long occupied the city,[18] andHeber is the name for a Kenite clan.[19] In the narrative of the later Hebrew conquest, Hebron was one of two centers under Canaanite control. They were ruled by the three sons ofAnak (benê/yelîdê hāʿănaq).[20] or may reflect some Kenite andKenizzite migration from the Negev to Hebron, since terms related to the Kenizzites appear to be close toHurrian. This suggests that behind theAnakim legend lies some early Hurrian population.[21] In Biblical lore they are represented as descendants of theNephilim.[22] TheBook of Genesis mentions that it was formerly calledKiryath-arba, or "city of four", possibly referring to the four pairs or couples who were buried there, or four tribes, or four quarters,[23] four hills,[24] or a confederated settlement of four families.[25]
The story of Abraham's purchase of theCave of the Patriarchs from theHittites constitutes a seminal element in what was to become the Jewish attachment to the land[26] in that it signified the first "real estate" of Israel long before the conquest under Joshua.[27] In settling here, Abraham is described as making his firstcovenant, an alliance with two localAmorite clans who became hisba'alei brit ormasters of the covenant.[28]
The Hebron of the Israelites was centered on what is now known as Tel Rumeida, while its ritual center was located atElonei Mamre.[29] Hebrew Bible narrative also describes the city.
Samson removes gates of Gaza (left) and brings them to Mount Hebron (right). Strassburg (1160–1170),Württemberg State Museum in Stuttgart
It is said to have been wrested from the Canaanites by eitherJoshua, who is said to have wiped out all of its previous inhabitants, "destroying everything that drew breath, as the Lord God of Israel had commanded",[30] or theTribe of Judah as a whole, or specificallyCaleb the Judahite.[31] The town itself, with some contiguous pasture land, is then said to have been granted to theLevites of the clan ofKohath, while the fields of the city, as well as its surrounding villages were assigned to Caleb (Joshua 21:3–12; 1 Chronicles 6:54–56),[32] who expels the three giants,Sheshai,Ahiman, andTalmai, who ruled the city. Later, the biblical narrative hasKing David called by God to relocate to Hebron and reign from there for some seven years (2 Samuel 2:1–3).[33] It is there that the elders of Israel come to him to make a covenant before Elohim and anoint himking of Israel.[34] It was in Hebron again thatAbsalom has himself declared king and then raises a revolt against his father David (2 Samuel 15:7–10). It became one of the principal centers of the Tribe of Judah and was classified as one of the six traditionalCities of Refuge.[35]
As is shown by the discovery atLachish, the second most important city in theKingdom of Judah after Jerusalem,[36] of seals with the inscriptionlmlk Hebron (to the king Hebron),[12] Hebron continued to constitute an important local economic center, given its strategic position on the crossroads between theDead Sea to the east, Jerusalem to the north, the Negev and Egypt to the south, and theShepelah and thecoastal plain to the west.[37] Lying alongtrading routes, it remained administratively and politically dependent on Jerusalem for this period.[38]
After the destruction of theFirst Temple, most of the Jewish inhabitants of Hebron were exiled, and according to the conventional view,[39] some researchers found traces ofEdomite presence after the 5th–4th centuries BCE, as the area becameAchaemenid province,[40] and, in the wake ofAlexander the Great's conquest, Hebron was throughout theHellenistic period under the influence of Idumea (as the new area inhabited by the Edomites was called during thePersian,Hellenistic andRoman periods), as is attested by inscriptions for that period bearing names with the Edomite GodQōs.[41] Jews also appear to have lived there after the return from theBabylonian exile (Nehemiah 11:25). During theMaccabean revolt, Hebron was burnt and plundered byJudah Maccabee who fought against the Edomites in 167 BCE.[42][43] The city appears to have long resistedHasmonean dominance, however, and indeed as late as theFirst Jewish–Roman War was still consideredIdumean.[44]
The present day city of Hebron was settled in the valley downhill from Tel Rumeida at the latest by Roman times.[45]Herod the Great, king of Judea, built the wall that still surrounds theCave of the Patriarchs. During theFirst Jewish–Roman War, Hebron was captured and plundered bySimon Bar Giora, a leader of theZealots, without bloodshed. The "little town" was later laid to waste byVespasian's officerSextus Vettulenus Cerialis.[46]Josephus wrote that he "slew all he found there, young and old, and burnt down the town". After the suppression of theBar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, innumerable Jewish captives were sold into slavery at Hebron'sTerebinth slave-market.[47][48]
The city was part of theByzantine Empire inPalaestina Prima province at theDiocese of the East. The Byzantine emperorJustinian I erected a Christian church over the Cave of Machpelah in the 6th century CE, which was later destroyed by theSassanid generalShahrbaraz in 614 whenKhosrau II's armies besieged and took Jerusalem.[49] Jews were not permitted to reside in Hebron under Byzantine rule.[50] The sanctuary itself however was spared by the Persians, in deference to the Jewish population, who were numerous in theSassanid army.[51]
Muslim conquest and Islamic caliphate
Hebron was one of the last cities of Palestine to fall to theIslamic invasion in the 7th century, possibly the reason why Hebron is not mentioned in any traditions of the Arab conquest.[52] When theRashidun Caliphate established its rule over Hebron in 638, the Muslims converted the Byzantine church at the site of Abraham's tomb into a mosque.[50] It became an important station on the caravan trading route from Egypt, and also as a way-station for pilgrims making the yearly hajj from Damascus.[53] After the fall of the city, Jerusalem's conqueror, CaliphOmar ibn al-Khattab permitted Jewish people to return and to construct a small synagogue within the Herodian precinct.[54]
Catholic bishopArculf, who visited the Holy Land during theUmayyad period, described the city as unfortified and poor. In his writings he also mentioned camel caravans transporting firewood from Hebron to Jerusalem, which implies there was a presence of Arab nomads in the region at that time.[55] Trade greatly expanded, in particular withBedouins in theNegev (al-Naqab) and the population to the east of theDead Sea (Baḥr Lūṭ). According to Anton Kisa, Jews from Hebron (andTyre) founded theVenetian glass industry in the 9th century.[56]
Hebron was almost absent from Muslim literature before the 10th century.[57] In 985,al-Muqaddasi described Hebron (Habra) as the village of Abraham al-Khalil, with a strong fortress and a stone dome over Abraham's sepulchre.[58] The mosque contained the tombs of Isaac, Jacob, and their wives.[58] Surrounding the area were villages with vineyards producing exceptional grapes and apples.[58] Hebron had a public guest house offering lentils and olive oil to both the poor and the rich.[58] The guest house was established through the bequest of Prophet Muhammad's companions, including Tamim-al Dari, and received generous donations.[58] It was highly regarded as an excellent house of hospitality and charity in the realm of al-Islam.[58] The custom, known as the 'Table of Abraham' (simāt al-khalil), was similar to the one established by theFatimids.[59] In 1047,Nasir-i-Khusraw described Hebron in hisSafarnama as having many villages providing revenues for pious purposes.[60][59] He mentioned a spring flowing from under a stone, with water channeled to a covered tank outside the town.[59] The Sanctuary stood on the town's southern border, enclosed by four walls.[60] Barley was the primary crop, with abundant olives.[60] Visitors were provided with bread, olives, lentils cooked in olive oil, and raisins.[60] Hebron had numerous mills operated by oxen and mules, along with working girls baking bread.[60] The hospitality extended to about three-pound loaves of bread and meals for every arriving person, including up to 500 pilgrims on certain days.[59][60]
The tradition survives to this day in the form of theTakiat Ibrahim soup kitchen, which has been active in providing food for thousands over Ramadan, which coincided with food shortages during the 2024Gaza war.[61]Geniza documents from this period mention "the graves of the patriarchs" and attest to the presence of an organized Jewish community in Hebron. The Jews maintained a synagogue near the tomb and earned their livelihood accommodating Jewish pilgrims and merchants. During theSeljuk period, the community was headed by Saadia b. Abraham b. Nathan, known as the "haver of the graves of the patriarchs."[62]
TheCaliphate lasted in the area until 1099, when the ChristianCrusaderGodfrey de Bouillon took Hebron and renamed it "Castellion Saint Abraham".[63] It was designated capital of the southern district of the CrusaderKingdom of Jerusalem[64] and given, in turn,[65] as the fief of Saint Abraham, toGeldemar Carpinel, the bishop Gerard of Avesnes,[66] Hugh of Rebecques, Walter Mohamet and Baldwin of Saint Abraham. As aFrankish garrison of theKingdom of Jerusalem, its defense was precarious being 'little more than an island in a Moslem ocean'.[67] The Crusaders converted themosque and thesynagogue into a church. In 1106, an Egyptian campaign thrust into southern Palestine and almost succeeded the following year in wresting Hebron back from the Crusaders underBaldwin I of Jerusalem, who personally led the counter-charge to beat the Muslim forces off. In the year 1113 during the reign ofBaldwin II of Jerusalem, according toAli of Herat (writing in 1173), a certain part over the cave of Abraham had given way, and "a number of Franks had made their entrance therein". And they discovered "(the bodies) of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob", "their shrouds having fallen to pieces, lying propped up against a wall...Then the King, after providing new shrouds, caused the place to be closed once more". Similar information is given inIbn at Athir's Chronicle under the year 1119; "In this year was opened the tomb of Abraham, and those of his two sons Isaac and Jacob ...Many people saw the Patriarch. Their limbs had nowise beendisturbed, and beside them were placed lamps of gold and of silver."[68] TheDamascene nobleman and historianIbn al-Qalanisi in his chronicle also alludes at this time to the discovery ofrelics purported to be those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, a discovery that excited eager curiosity among all three communities in Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, and Christian.[69][70] Towards the end of the period of Crusader rule, in 1166Maimonides visited Hebron and wrote,
On Sunday, 9 Marheshvan (October 17), I left Jerusalem for Hebron to kiss the tombs of my ancestors in the Cave. On that day, I stood in the cave and prayed, praise be to God, (in gratitude) for everything.[71]
A royal domain, Hebron was handed over toPhilip of Milly in 1161 and joined with theSeigneurie of Transjordan. A bishop was appointed to Hebron in 1168 and the new cathedral church of St Abraham was built in the southern part of the Haram.[72] In 1167, theepiscopal see of Hebron was created along with that ofKerak andSebastia (the tomb ofJohn the Baptist).[73] In 1170,Benjamin of Tudela visited Hebron, referred to as in its Frankish nameSt. Abram de Bron.[74] He mentioned the great church called St. Abram, which was once a Jewish place of worship during the time of Muslim rule.[74] The Gentiles had erected six tombs there, claimed to be those of Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, and Leah.[74] The custodians collected money from pilgrims by presenting these tombs as the tombs of the Patriarchs.[74] However, if a Jew offered a special reward, they would open an iron gate leading to a series of empty caves, until reaching the third cave where the actual sepulchers of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs were said to be located.[74]
The Kurdish MuslimSaladin retook Hebron in 1187 – again with Jewish assistance according to one late tradition, in exchange for a letter of security allowing them to return to the city and build a synagogue there.[75] The name of the city was changed back toAl-Khalil. AKurdish quarter still existed in the town during the early period ofOttoman rule.[76]Richard the Lionheart retook the city soon after.Richard of Cornwall, brought from England to settle the dangerous feuding betweenTemplars andHospitallers, whose rivalry imperiled the treaty guaranteeing regional stability stipulated with the EgyptianSultanAs-Salih Ayyub, managed to impose peace on the area. But soon after his departure, feuding broke out and in 1241 the Templars mounted a damaging raid on what was, by now, Muslim Hebron, in violation of agreements.[77]
In 1244, theKhwarazmians destroyed the town, but left the sanctuary untouched.[51]
Mamluk period
In 1260, afterMamlukSultanBaibars defeated the Mongol army, theminarets were built onto the sanctuary. Six years later, while on pilgrimage to Hebron, Baibars promulgated an edict forbidding Christians and Jews from entering the sanctuary,[78] and the climate became less tolerant of Jews and Christians than it had been under the priorAyyubid rule. The edict for the exclusion of Christians and Jews was not strictly enforced until the middle of the 14th century and by 1490, not even Muslims were permitted to enter the caverns.[79] The mill atArtas was built in 1307, and the profits from its income were dedicated to the hospital in Hebron.[80] Between 1318 and 1320, theNa'ib ofGaza and much of coastal and interior Palestine ordered the construction ofJawli Mosque to enlarge the prayer space for worshipers at the Ibrahimi Mosque.[81]
Hebron was visited by important rabbis over the next two centuries, among themNachmanides (1270) andIshtori HaParchi (1322) who noted theold Jewish cemetery there.SunniimamIbn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) was penalized by the religious authorities in Damascus for refusing to recognize Hebron as a Muslim pilgrimage site, a view also held by his teacherIbn Taymiyyah.[82] The Jewish-Italian traveler,Meshullam of Volterra (1481) found not more than twenty Jewish families living in Hebron.[83][84] and recounted how the Jewish women of Hebron would disguise themselves with a veil in order to pass as Muslim women and enter the Cave of the Patriarchs without being recognized as Jews.[85] Minute descriptions of Hebron were recorded in Stephen von Gumpenberg's Journal (1449), byFelix Fabri (1483) and byMejr ed-Din[86] It was in this period, also, that theMamluk SultanQa'it Bay revived the old custom of the Hebron "table of Abraham", and exported it as a model for his ownmadrasa inMedina.[87] This became an immense charitable establishment near theHaram, distributing daily some 1,200 loaves of bread to travelers of all faiths.[88] The Italian rabbiObadiah ben Abraham Bartenura wrote around 1490:
I was in the Cave of Machpelah, over which the mosque has been built; and the Arabs hold the place in high honour. All the Kings of the Arabs come here to repeat their prayers, but neither a Jew nor an Arab may enter the Cave itself, where the real graves of the Patriarchs are; the Arabs remain above, and let down burning torches into it through a window, for they keep a light always burning there. . Bread and lentil, or some other kind of pulse (seeds of peas or beans), is distributed (by the Muslims) to the poor every day without distinction of faith, and this is done in honour of Abraham.[89]
The expansion of theOttoman Empire along the southern Mediterranean coast under sultanSelim I coincided with the establishment ofInquisition commissions by theCatholic Monarchs in Spain in 1478, which ended centuries of the Iberianconvivencia (coexistence). The ensuingexpulsions of the Jews drove manySephardi Jews into the Ottoman provinces, and a slow influx of Jews to the Holy Land took place, with notable Sephardikabbalists settling in Hebron.[90] Over the following two centuries, there was a significant migration of Bedouin tribal groups from the Arabian Peninsula into Palestine. Many settled in three separate villages in the Wādī al-Khalīl, and their descendants later formed the majority of Hebron.[91]
The Jewish community fluctuated between 8–10 families throughout the 16th century, and suffered from severe financial straits in the first half of the century.[92] In 1540, renownedkabbalistMalkiel Ashkenazi bought a courtyard from the smallKaraite community, in which he established the SephardicAbraham Avinu Synagogue.[93] In 1659, Abraham Pereyra of Amsterdam founded theHesed Le'Abrahamyeshiva in Hebron, which attracted many students.[94] In the early 18th century, the Jewish community suffered from heavy debts, almost quadrupling from 1717 to 1729,[95] and were "almost crushed" from the extortion practiced by the Turkish pashas. In 1773 or 1775, a substantial amount of money was extorted from the Jewish community after a false allegation that the son of a localsheikh was murdered and thrown into a cesspit.[citation needed]Emissaries from the community were frequently sent overseas tosolicit funds.[96][97] During the Ottoman period, the dilapidated patriarchs' tombs were restored to a semblance of dignity.[98]Ali Bey, in Muslim disguise, was one of the few Westerners to gain access. In 1807 he reported that the sepulchres were covered with carpets of green silk embroidered in gold and those of the wives were covered in red silk.The sultans of Constantinople furnished these carpets, which were renewed from time to time. Ali Bey counted nine, one over the other, on the sepulchre of Abraham.[99] Hebron also became known for its glass production, based on Bedouin trade networks that brought up minerals from the Dead Sea. The industry is mentioned in travel literature in 19th century written byWestern travelers to Palestine.Ulrich Jasper Seetzen noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808–09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron,[100] based on 26kilns.[101] In 1833, a report on the town in the weekly paper of the London-basedReligious Tract Society wrote that Hebron had numerous well-provisioned shops and produced glass lamps which were exported toEgypt.[102] Early 19th-century travelers also noted Hebron's flourishing agriculture. It was a major exporter ofdibse, grape sugar,[103] from the famous Dabookeh grapestock characteristic of Hebron.[104]
Northern Hebron in the mid-19th century (1850s)
AnArab peasants' revolt broke out in April 1834 whenIbrahim Pasha of Egypt announced he would recruit troops from the local Muslim population.[105] Hebron, headed by itsnazir Abd ar-Rahman Amr, declined to supply its quota of conscripts for the army and suffered badly from the Egyptian campaign to crush the uprising. The town was invested and, when its defenses fell on August 4, it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha's army.[106][107][108] An estimated 500 Muslims from Hebron were killed in the attack and some 750 were conscripted. 120 youths were abducted and put at the disposal of Egyptian army officers. Most of the Muslim population managed to flee beforehand to the hills. Many Jews fled to Jerusalem, but during the general pillage of the townat least five were killed.[109]When the government of Ibrahim Pasha fell in 1841, the local clan leader Abd ar-Rahman Amr once again resumed the reins of power as the Sheik of Hebron. Due to his extortionate demands for cash from the local population, most of the Jewish population fled to Jerusalem.[110] In 1846, the Ottoman Governor-in-chief of Jerusalem (serasker),Kıbrıslı Mehmed Emin Pasha, waged a campaign to subdue rebellious sheiks in the Hebron area, and while doing so, allowed his troops to sack the town. Though it was widely rumored that he secretly protected Abd ar-Rahman,[111] the latter was deported together with other local leaders (such as Muslih al-'Azza ofBayt Jibrin), but he managed to return to the area in 1848.[112]
According to Hillel Cohen, the attacks on Jews in this particular period are an exception that proves the rule, that one of the easiest place for Jews to live in the world were in the various countries of the Ottoman Empire. In the mid-eighteenth century,rabbi Abraham Gershon ofKitov wrote from Hebron that:"the gentiles here very much love the Jews. When there is abrit milah (circumcision ceremony) or any other celebration, their most important men come at night and rejoice with the Jews and clap hands and dance with the Jews, just like the Jews'."[113]
By 1850, the Jewish population consisted of 45–60 Sephardic families, some 40 born in the town, and a 30-year-old Ashkenazic community of 50 families, mainly Polish and Russian,[114][115] theLubavitch Hasidic movement having established a community in 1823.[116] The ascendency of Ibrahim Pasha led to a decline in the local glass industry. His plan to build a Mediterranean fleet led to severe logging in Hebron's forests, making firewood for the kilns scarce. At the same time, Egypt began importing cheap European glass. The rerouting of the hajj from Damascus through Transjordan reduced traffic to Hebron, and theSuez Canal (1869) precipitated a drop in caravan trade. The consequence was a steady deterioration of the local economy.[117] At the time, the town was divided into four quarters: the Ancient Quarter (Harat al-Kadim) near the Cave of Machpelah; to its south, the Quarter of the Silk Merchant (Harat al-Kazaz), inhabited by Jews; the Mamluk-era Sheikh's Quarter (Harat ash Sheikh) to the north-west; and further north, the Dense Quarter (Harat al-Harbah).[118][119]
Jews in Hebron, 1921
In 1855, the newly appointed Ottomanpasha ("governor") of thesanjak ("district") of Jerusalem,Kamil Pasha, attempted to put down a rebellion in the Hebron region. Kamil and his army marched towards Hebron in July 1855, a scene witnessed by representatives of the English, French and other Western consulates. After crushing all opposition, Kamil appointed Salama Amr, brother and rival of Abd al Rachman, asnazir of the Hebron region. Relative quiet reigned in the town for the next 4 years.[120][121] In 1866, Hungarian Jews of theKarlin Hasidic court settled in Hebron.[122] According toNadav Shragai, Arab-Jewish relations were good, and Alter Rivlin, who spoke Arabic and Syrian-Aramaic, was appointed Jewish representative to the city council.[122] During a severe drought in 1869–1871, food in Hebron sold for ten times the normal amount.[123] From 1874, the Hebron district was administered directly fromIstanbul as part of the Sanjak of Jerusalem.[124] By 1874, whenC.R. Conder visited Hebron under the auspices of thePalestine Exploration Fund, the Jewish community numbered 600 in an overall population of 17,000.[125] The Jews lived in the Quarter of the Corner Gate.[125] In the late 19th century the production ofHebron glass declined due to competition from imported European glassware, although it continued to be popular among those who could not afford luxury goods and was sold by Jewish merchants.[126] Glass ornaments from Hebron were exhibited at theWorld Fair of 1873 in Vienna.
A report from theconsul of theFrench Consulate in Jerusalem in 1886 suggests that glass-making remained an important source of income for Hebron, with four factories earning 60,000 francs yearly.[127] While the economy of other cities in Palestine was based on solely on trade, the economy of Hebron was more diverse, including agriculture and livestock herding, along with glassware manufacturing and processing of hides. This was because the most fertile lands were situated within the city limits.[128] Even so, Hebron had an image of being unproductive and an "asylum for the poor and the spiritual".[129] While the wealthy merchants of Nablus built fine mansions, housing in Hebron consisted of semi-peasant dwellings.[128]
Hebron was described as 'deeply Bedouin and Islamic',[130] and 'bleakly conservative' in its religious outlook,[131] with a strong tradition of hostility to Jews.[132][133] It had a reputation for religious zeal in jealously protecting its sites from Jews and Christians, although the Jewish and Christian communities seem to have been an integral part of the local economy.[91] As income from commerce declined and tax revenues diminished significantly, the Ottoman government left Hebron to manage its own affairs for the most part, making it "one of the most autonomous regions in late Ottoman Palestine."[134] The Jewish community was under French protection until 1914. The Jewish presence itself was divided between the traditional Sephardi community, whose members spoke Arabic and adopted Arab dress, and the more recent influx ofAshkenazi Jews. They prayed in different synagogues, sent their children to different schools, lived in different quarters and did not intermarry. The community was largely Orthodox and anti-Zionist.[135][136]
British Mandate period
British loyalty meeting in Hebron, July 1940
The Britishoccupied Hebron on December 8, 1917; governance transited to amandate in 1920. Most of Hebron was owned by old Islamic charitable endowments (waqfs), with about 60% of all the land in and around Hebron belonging to the Tamīm al-Dārī waqf.[137] During the 1920s, Abd al-Ḥayy al-Khaṭīb was appointed Mufti of Hebron. Before his appointment, he had been a staunch opponent ofHaj Amin, supported the Muslim National Associations and had good contacts with the Zionists.[138] Later, al-Khaṭīb became one of the few loyal followers of Haj Amin in Hebron.[139] During the late Ottoman period, a new ruling elite had emerged in Palestine. They later formed the core of the growing Arab nationalist movement in the early 20th century. During the Mandate period, delegates from Hebron constituted only 1 percent of the political leadership.[140] The Palestinian Arab decision to boycott the 1923 elections for a Legislative Council was made at thefifth Palestinian Congress, after it was reported by Murshid Shahin (an Arab pro-Zionist activist) that there was intense resistance in Hebron to the elections.[141] Almost no house in Hebron remained undamaged when anearthquake struck Palestine on July 11, 1927.[142]
The Cave of the Patriarchs continued to remain officially closed to non-Muslims, and reports that entry to the site had been relaxed in 1928 were denied by theSupreme Muslim Council.[143]
At this time following attempts by theLithuanian government to draft yeshiva students into the army, the LithuanianHebron Yeshiva (Knesses Yisroel) relocated to Hebron, after consultations between RabbiNosson Tzvi Finkel,Yechezkel Sarna andMoshe Mordechai Epstein.[144][145] and by 1929 had attracted some 265 students from Europe and the United States.[146] The majority of the Jewish population lived on the outskirts of Hebron along the roads to Be'ersheba and Jerusalem, renting homes owned by Arabs, a number of which were built for the express purpose of housing Jewish tenants, with a few dozen within the city around the synagogues.[147] During the1929 Hebron massacre, Arab rioters slaughtered some 64 to 67 Jewish men, women and children[148][149] and wounded 60, and Jewish homes and synagogues were ransacked; 435 Jews survived by virtue of the shelter and assistance offered them by their Arab neighbors, who hid them.[150] Some Hebron Arabs, including Ahmad Rashid al-Hirbawi, president of Hebron chamber of commerce, supported the return of Jews after the massacre.[151] Two years later, 35 families moved back into the ruins of the Jewish quarter, but on the eve of thePalestinian Arab revolt (April 23, 1936) the British Government decided to move the Jewish community out of Hebron as a precautionary measure to secure its safety. The sole exception was the 8th generation Hebronite Ya'akov ben Shalom Ezra, who processed dairy products in the city, blended in well with its social landscape and resided there under the protection of friends. In November 1947, in anticipation of theUN partition vote, the Ezra family closed its shop and left the city.[152] Yossi Ezra has since tried to regain his family's property through the Israeli courts.[153]
Jordanian occupation
Hebron in the 1960s under Jordanian rule
At the beginning of the1948 Arab–Israeli War, Egypt took control of Hebron. Between May and October, Egypt and Jordan tussled for dominance in Hebron and its environs. Both countries appointed military governors in the town, hoping to gain recognition from Hebron officials. The Egyptians managed to persuade the pro-Jordanian mayor to support their rule, at least superficially, but local opinion turned against them when they imposed taxes. Villagers surrounding Hebron resisted and skirmishes broke out in which some were killed.[154] By late 1948, part of the Egyptian forces from Bethlehem to Hebron had been cut off from their lines of supply andGlubb Pasha sent 350Arab Legionnaires and an armored car unit to Hebron to reinforce them there. When theArmistice was signed, the city thus fell underJordanian military control. The armistice agreement between Israel with Jordan intended to allow Israeli Jewish pilgrims to visit Hebron, but, as Jews of all nationalities were forbidden by Jordan into the country, this did not occur.[155][156]
In December 1948, theJericho Conference, held by Jordan, was convened to decide the future of the West Bank. Hebron notables, headed by mayorMuhamad 'Ali al-Ja'bari, voted in favor of becoming part ofJordan and to recognizeAbdullah I of Jordan as their king. The subsequent unilateral annexation benefited the Arabs of Hebron, who during the 1950s, played a significant role in the economic development of Jordan.[157][158]
Although a significant number of people relocated to Jerusalem from Hebron during the Jordanian period,[159] Hebron itself saw a considerable increase in population with 35,000 settling in the town.[160] During this period, signs of the previous Jewish presence in Hebron were removed.[161]
Israeli period
Israeli soldiers enforcing the curfew, 1969
After theSix-Day War in June 1967, Israeloccupied Hebron along with the rest of theWest Bank, establishing amilitary government to rule the area. In an attempt to reach aland for peace deal,Yigal Allon proposed that Israel annex 45% of the West Bank and return the remainder to Jordan.[162] According to theAllon Plan, the city of Hebron would lie in Jordanian territory, and in order to determine Israel's own border, Allon suggested building a Jewish settlement adjacent to Hebron.[163]David Ben-Gurion also considered that Hebron was the one sector of the conquered territories that should remain under Jewish control and be open to Jewish settlement.[164] Apart from its symbolic message to the international community that Israel's rights in Hebron were, according to Jews, inalienable,[165] settling Hebron also had theological significance in some quarters.[166] For some, the capture of Hebron by Israel had unleashed a messianic fervor.[167]
Constructed in 1893, this former Jewish clinic in central Hebron now forms part of an Israeli settlement.
Survivors and descendants of the prior community are mixed. Some support the project of Jewish redevelopment, others commend living in peace with Hebronite Arabs, while a third group recommend a full pullout.[168] Descendants supporting the latter views have met with Palestinian leaders in Hebron.[169] In 1997 one group of descendants dissociated themselves from the settlers by calling them an obstacle to peace.[169] On May 15, 2006, a member of a group who is a direct descendant of the 1929 refugees[170] urged the government to continue its support of Jewish settlement, and allow the return of eight families evacuated the previous January from homes they set up in emptied shops near the Avraham Avinu neighborhood.[168]Beit HaShalom, established in 2007 under disputed circumstances, was under court orders permitting its forced evacuation.[171][172][173][174] All the Jewish settlers were expelled on December 3, 2008.[175]
Israeli soldiers patrol an open-air market.
Immediately after the 1967 war, mayor al-Ja'bari had unsuccessfully promoted the creation of an autonomous Palestinian entity in the West Bank, and by 1972, he was advocating for a confederal arrangement with Jordan instead. al-Ja'bari nevertheless consistently fostered a conciliatory policy towards Israel.[176] He was ousted by Fahad Qawasimi in the 1976 mayoral election, which marked a shift in support towards pro-PLO nationalist leaders.[177] Supporters of Jewish settlement within Hebron see their program as the reclamation of an important heritage dating back to Biblical times, which was dispersed or, it is argued, stolen by Arabs after the massacre of 1929.[178][179] The purpose of settlement is to return to the 'land of our forefathers',[180] and the Hebron model of reclaiming sacred sites in Palestinian territories has pioneered a pattern for settlers in Bethlehem and Nablus.[181] Many reports, foreign and Israeli, are sharply critical of the behavior of Hebronite settlers.[182][183]
Sheik Farid Khader heads the Ja'bari tribe, consisting of some 35,000 people, which is considered one of the most important tribes in Hebron. For years, members of the Ja'bari tribe were the mayors of Hebron. Khader regularly meets with settlers and Israeli government officials and is a strong opponent of both the concept of Palestinian State and the Palestinian Authority itself. Khader believes that Jews and Arabs must learn to coexist.[184]A violent episode occurred May 2, 1980, when anAl Fatah squad killed five yeshiva students and one other person on their way home from Sabbath prayer at theTomb of the Patriarchs.[185] The event provided a major motivation for settlers near Hebron to join theJewish Underground.[186]
In the 1980s Hebron, became the center of the JewishKach movement, a designated terrorist organization,[187] whose first operations started there, and provided a model for similar behavior in other settlements. On July 26, 1983, Israeli settlersattacked the Islamic University and shot three people dead and injured over thirty others.[188] The 1994Shamgar Commission of Inquiry concluded that Israeli authorities had consistently failed to investigate or prosecute crimes committed by settlers against Palestinians. Hebron IDF commander Noam Tivon said that his foremost concern is to "ensure the security of the Jewish settlers" and that Israeli "soldiers have acted with the utmost restraint and have not initiated any shooting attacks or violence".[189]
A net in the streets of the old city to protect Palestinians from the garbage thrown by Israeli settlers on the upper floors, June 2010[190]An Israeli checkpoint in Hebron in 2015
Hebron was the one city excluded from the interim agreement of September 1995 to restore rule over all Palestinian West Bank cities to thePalestinian Authority.[191] IDF soldiers see their job as being to protect Israeli settlers from Palestinian residents, not to police the Israeli settlers. IDF soldiers are instructed to leave violent Israeli settlers for the police to deal with.[192][193] Since TheOslo Agreement, violent episodes have been recurrent in the city. TheCave of the Patriarchs massacre took place on February 25, 1994, whenBaruch Goldstein, an Israeli physician and resident ofKiryat Arba, opened fire on Muslims at prayer in theCave of the Patriarchs, killing 29, and wounding 125 before the survivors overcame and killed him.[194] Standing orders for Israeli soldiers on duty in Hebron disallowed them from firing on fellow Jews, even if they were shooting Arabs.[195] This event was condemned by the Israeli Government, and the extreme right-wingKach party was banned as a result.[196] The Israeli government also tightened restrictions on the movement of Palestinians in H2, closed their vegetable and meat markets, and banned Palestinian cars on Al-Shuhada Street.[197] The park near the Cave of the Patriarchs for recreation and barbecues is off-limits for Arab Hebronites.[198] Following the 1995Oslo Agreement and subsequent 1997Hebron Agreement, Palestinian cities were placed under the exclusive jurisdiction of thePalestinian Authority, with the exception of Hebron,[199] which was split into two sectors: H1 is controlled by the Palestinian Authority and H2 – which includes theOld City of Hebron – remained under the military control of Israel.[191][200] Around 120,000 Palestinians live in H1, while around 30,000 Palestinians along with around 700 Israelis remain under Israeli military control in H2. As of 2009[update], a total of 86 Jewish families lived in Hebron.[201] The IDF (Israel Defense Forces) may not enter H1 unless under Palestinian escort. Palestinians cannot approach areas where settlers live without special permits from the IDF.[202] The Jewish settlement is widely considered to be illegal by the international community, although the Israeli government disputes this.[203]
Over the period of theFirst Intifada andSecond Intifada, the Jewish community was subjected to attacks by Palestinian militants, especially during the periods of the intifadas; which saw 3 fatal stabbings and 9 fatal shootings in between the first andsecond Intifada (0.9% of all fatalities in Israel and the West Bank) and 17 fatal shootings (9 soldiers and 8 settlers) and 2 fatalities from a bombing during the second Intifada,[204] and thousands of rounds fired on it from the hills above the Abu-Sneina and Harat al-Sheikh neighborhoods. On November 15, 2002, 12 Israeli soldiers were killed (Hebron Brigade commander ColonelDror Weinberg and two other officers, 6 soldiers and 3 members of the security unit of Kiryat Arba) inan ambush.[205] TwoTemporary International Presence in Hebron observers were killed by Palestinian gunmen in a shooting attack on the road to Hebron[206][207][208] On March 27, 2001, a Palestinian sniper targeted and killed the Jewish babyShalhevet Pass. The sniper was caught in 2002.[citation needed] Hebron is one of the three West Bank towns from which the majority of suicide bombers originate. In May 2003, three students of the Hebron Polytechnic University carried out three separate suicide attacks.[209] In August 2003, in what both Islamic groups described as a retaliation, a 29-year-old preacher from Hebron, Raed Abdel-Hamed Mesk, broke a unilateral Palestinian ceasefire by killing 23 and injured over 130 in abus bombing in Jerusalem.[210][211] In 2007, the Palestinian population in H2 declined due to Israeli security measures such as extended curfews, strict restrictions on movement,[212] the closure of Palestinian businesses and settler harassment.[213][214][215][216] Palestinians are barred from usingAl-Shuhada Street, a principal commercial thoroughfare that is locally nicknamed "Apartheid Street" as a result.[202][217]
The Israeli settlement of Beit Romano, in the old town, 2015Armed Israeli settlers onAl-Shuhada Street, November 6, 2010
Israeli organizationB'Tselem states that there have been "grave violations" of Palestinian human rights in Hebron because of the "presence of the settlers within the city". The organization cites regular incidents of "almost daily physical violence and property damage by settlers in the city", curfews and restrictions of movement that are "among the harshest in the Occupied Territories", and violence by Israeli border policemen and the IDF against Palestinians who live in the city's H2 sector.[218][219][220] According toHuman Rights Watch, Palestinian areas of Hebron are frequently subject to indiscriminate firing by the IDF, leading to many casualties.[221] One former IDF soldier, with experience in policing Hebron, has testified toBreaking the Silence, that on the briefing wall of his unit a sign describing their mission aim was hung that read: "To disrupt the routine of the inhabitants of the neighbourhood."[222] Hebron mayorMustafa Abdel Nabi invited theChristian Peacemaker Teams to assist the local Palestinian community in opposition to what they describe as Israeli military occupation, collective punishment, settler harassment,home demolitions and land expropriation.[223] In 2017,Temporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) issued a confidential report covering their 20 years of work in Hebron. The report, based in part on over 40,000 incidents reported during this period, stated that Israel violated international law in Hebron and has breached the rights of residents as established by theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The report claimed that Israel violated Article 49 of theFourth Geneva Convention, which prohibits the deportation of civilians from occupied territory. Israeli settlement in Hebron was also cited as a violation.[224]
Geography
Grape farming in Hebron
Hebron is situated on the southernWest Bank.[225] Nestled in theJudaean Mountains, it lies 930 meters (3,050 ft)above sea level.[225] Hebron is located 30 kilometers (19 mi) south ofJerusalem, 60.1 kilometers (37.3 mi) east ofGaza, 43 kilometers (27 mi) northeast ofBeersheba and 68.4 kilometers (42.5 mi) southeast ofTel Aviv, both inIsrael and 89.8 kilometers (55.8 mi) northeast ofAmman,Jordan.[225] The city is surrounded byBani Na'im andDura to the east,Halhul to the north,Taffuh to the west andYatta to the south.[226][225] The Israeli–controlled H2 region is located in the eastern region of the city.[225]
It is one of the highest cities in the area and was, until the 19th century, considered the highest city in the Middle East.[225] With the governorate and metropolitan area, it forms about 19% of the West Bank total area.[227] The city is surrounded by several mountains and hills, including theHebron Hills (Jabal al–Khalil) andMount Nabi Yunis.[225][228] The Mount Nabi Yunis, situated north of the city, is the highest point in Palestine, with an altitude of 1,030 meters (3,380 ft).[229] While the Hebron Hills is southern part of the widerJudaean Mountains, which spreads throughout Israel and Palestine and have an altitude of 1,026 m (3,366 ft).[230] The two larger settlements whose population exceeds 7000 sit on the hills overlooking the Hebron's eastern quarters –Kirayt Arba andGivat Harsina.[231] Wadi al–Quff near Hebron is one of the largest natural reserves in Palestine.[232] Located towards northeast of the city, it is surrounded by nearby towns and villages ofTarqumia, Halhoul,Beit Kahel andBeit Ola.[232] The natural reserve covers up an area of 3.73 square kilometers (920 acres).[232] Wadi al–Quff Natural reserve is home to some of the rare species of animals and plants.[232]
Hebron is located on fertile mountainous area, making the city agriculturally rich, thus giving it a strategic importance.[225] This is the reason for Hebron, today being a hub for cultivation of fruits and vineyards.[233] The alternative sources of water network is cisterns.[226] There are ten springs and three wells in the city.[226] The water of springs and wells are not currently used.[226][225] TheHebron River (Wadi al–Khalil), known asNahal Hebron in Hebrew located along the region ofJudea andNegev, is one of the water sources for the city.[234][225] Currently the river is polluted, mainly due to the generation of waste, mostly by the industrial areas, situated on the city's east and south.[234][225]
Climate
The climate in Hebron is temperate and the mean year-round temperature ranges between 15 and 16° (an average of 7° in winter and 21° in summer).[235] Annual precipitations average around 502 mm.[235] Hebron hasa Mediterranean, hot summer climate (Classification: Csa).[235] The city's yearly temperature is 22.74 °C (72.93 °F) and it is 0.14% higher than Palestine's averages.[235] It typically receives about 15.72 millimeters (0.62 inches) of precipitation and has 39.47 rainy days (10.81% of the time) annually, during January and February.[235][236]
Historically, the city consisted of four densely populated quarters: thesuq andHarat al-Masharqa adjacent to theIbrahimi Mosque, the Silk Merchant Quarter (Haret Kheitun) to the south and the Sheikh Quarter (Haret al-Sheikh) to the north.[238] It is believed the basic urban structure of the city had been established by the Mamluk period, during which time the city also had Jewish, Christian and Kurdish quarters.[239]In the mid 19th-century, Hebron was still divided into four quarters, but the Christian quarter had disappeared.[239] The sections included the ancient quarter surrounding theCave of Machpelah, theHaret Kheitun (the Jewish Quarter,Haret el-Yahud), theHaret el-Sheikh and theDruze Quarter.[240] As Hebron's population gradually increased, inhabitants preferred to build upwards rather than leave the safety of their neighborhoods.[238] By the 1880s, better security provided by the Ottoman authorities allowed the town to expand and a new commercial center,Bab el-Zawiye, emerged.[241] As development continued, new spacious and taller structures were built to the north-west.[242] In 1918, the town consisted of dense clusters of residential dwellings along the valley, rising onto the slopes above it.[243] By the 1920s, the town was made up of seven quarters:el-Sheikh andBab el-Zawiye to the west,el-Kazzazin,el-Akkabi andel-Haram in the center,el-Musharika to the south andel-Kheitun in the east.[244] Urban sprawl had spread onto the surrounding hills by 1945.[243]
Sunset in the sky of Hebron Ras al-Jura
The large population increase under Jordanian rule resulted in about 1,800 new houses being built, most of them along theHebron-Jerusalem highway, stretching northwards for over 3 miles (5 km) at a depth of 600 ft (200m) either way. Some 500 houses were built elsewhere on surrounding rural land. There was less development to the south-east, where housing units extended along the valley for about 1 mile (1.5 km).[160] In 1971, with the assistance of the Israeli and Jordanian governments, theHebron University, an Islamic university, was founded.[245][246] In an attempt to enhance the view of theIbrahami Mosque, Jordan demolished whole blocks of ancient houses opposite its entrance, which also resulted in improved access to the historic site.[247] The Jordanians also demolished the old synagogue located in the el-Kazzazin Quarter. In 1976, Israel recovered the site, which had been converted into an animal pen, and by 1989, a settler courtyard had been established there.[248]
Today, the area along the north–south axis to the east comprises the modern city of Hebron (also called Upper Hebron,Khalil Foq).[249] It was established towards the end of the Ottoman period, its inhabitants being upper and middle class Hebronites who moved there from the crowded old city,Balde al-Qadime (also called Lower Hebron,Khalil Takht).[250] The northern part of Upper Hebron includes some up-scale residential districts and also houses the Hebron University, private hospitals and the only two luxury hotels in the city.[249] The main commercial artery of the city is located here, situated along theJerusalem Road, and includes modern multi-storey shopping malls.[249] Also in this area are villas and apartment complexes built on thekrum, rural lands and vineyards, which used to function as recreation areas during the summer months until the early Jordanian period.[250] The southern part is where the working-class neighborhoods are located, along with large industrial zones and theHebron Polytechnic University.[250] The main municipal and governmental buildings are located in the center of the city.[249] This area includes high-rise concrete and glass developments and also some distinct Ottoman era one-storey family houses, adorned with arched entrances, decorative motifs and ironwork. Hebron's domestic appliance and textile markets are located here along two parallel roads that lead to the entrance of the old city.[250] Many of these have been relocated from the old commercial center of the city, known as the vegetable market (hesbe), which was closed down by the Israeli military during the 1990s.[249] The vegetable market is now located in the square ofBab el-Zawiye.[250]
Hebron has, historically, been an Arab city but a small Jewish community has existed since the 16th century,[256] encouraged to settle there by the Ottoman authorities following theexpulsion of Jews from Spain.[257] In 1820, it was reported that there were about 1,000 Jews in Hebron.[258] In 1838, the total population was estimated at 10,000, including an estimated 1,500 taxable Muslim households, and to 41 Jewish taxpayers. Taxpayers consisted here of male heads of households who owned even a very small shop or piece of land. 200 Jews and one Christian household were under 'European protections'.[107] In 1842, it was estimated that about 400 Arab and 120 Jewish families lived in Hebron, the Jews having been diminished in number following the destruction of 1834.[259] Its population stood at 16,577 in 1922 of which 16,074 (97%) were Muslim, 430 (2.5%) were Jewish and 73 (0.4%) were Christian.[251][260]
The Jewish community was expelled from the city following the massacre of nearly 70 Jews in 1929. However, since Israel gained control of the West Bank in 1967, Hebron and eastern Jerusalem have been the only cities in the region to receiveJewish settlement.[256]
Hebron had a population of 201,063Palestinians in 2017,[3] and seven hundred Jewish settlers concentrated on the outskirts of itsOld City. Roughly 20% of the city, including 35,000 Palestinians, under Israeli military administration, lives in the region of H2 Hebron.[261] The surrounding area forms the Hebron metropolitan area, with an estimated population of around 782,227 as of 2021[update].[262] It is third largest metropolitan area in Palestine, after Gaza and Jerusalem.[262]
Hebron is also home to several ethnic minority and foreign diaspora communities.[263]Kurds have been living in the city sinceSaladin'sconquest of Palestine.[263] Along with Jerusalem and Gaza, the city is also home toPalestinians of Kurdish descent.[263] Nearly a third of the population of Hebron, is considered to be of Kurdish background.[263] The Kurdish Quarter, known asHarat al-Akrad, still exists today.[263] Hebron is also home to a small Samaritan community, after Nablus.[264]
Economy
A loom at work making keffiyeh at the Hirbawi factory in Hebron.Industrial area of Hebron
Hebron is a leading commercial and industrial center in the Levantine region.[265] The presence ofminerals and resources in surroundings have increased the city's value.[265] It emerged as in important trade hub in the West Bank.[265] Hebron is most productive region in the country afterJerusalem–Bethlehem–Ramallah area. The H1 Area, which is under control ofPalestinian Authority have been a large contributor to the city's economy.[265] Despite having tense relations, Israelis and Palestinians have strong trade relations in Hebron.[265] The city is popular for its ceramics and glass industry.[266]
It is the source of 60% of stone and marble resources in the West Bank.[265] 33% of the Palestine'sGNP is from Hebron, including 60% of the jewelry industry and jewelry production, 28% of the output in the agricultural sector and 75% of the leather and shoe industry.[265] Most agricultural products from Palestinian controlled Hebron are sent to Israel.[265] Trade volume between Israel and the Palestine reaches $30 billion annually and the city trades withChina as well.[265] The minimum wage is 50NIS per day versus an average of 30 NIS per day in other Palestinian areas.[265]
Ein Sarah Street, Hebron Central Business District at nightInside the Hebron City Center Mall
From the 1970s to the early 1990s, a third of those who lived in the city worked in the shoe industry. According to the shoe factory owner Tareq Abu Felat, the number reached least 35,000 people and there were more than 1,000 workshops around the city.[267] Statistics from the Chamber of Commerce in Hebron put the figure at 40,000 people employed in 1,200 shoe businesses.[268] However, the1993 Oslo Accords and1994 Paris Protocol between Israel and thePLO made it possible to mass import Chinese goods as the Palestinian National Authority, which was created after the Oslo Accords, did not regulate it. They later put import taxes but the Abu Felat, who also is the Palestinian Federation of Leather Industries's chairman, said more is still needed.[267] ThePalestinian government decided to impose an additional tax of 35% on products from China from April 2013.[268]
90% of the shoes in Palestine are now estimated to come from China, which Palestinian industry workers say are of much lower quality but also much cheaper,[267] and the Chinese are more aesthetic. Another factor contributing to the decline of the local industry isIsraeli restrictions on Palestinian exports.[268] Today, there are less than 300 workshops in the shoe industry, who only run part-time, and they employ around 3,000–4,000 people. More than 50% of the shoes are exported to Israel, where consumers have a better economy. Less than 25% goes to the Palestinian market, with some going toJordan,Saudi Arabia and otherArab countries.[267]
The most advanced printing press in the Middle East is in Hebron.[265] Hebron is major source of import goods to Israel.[265] Mattresses manufactured in Hebron are exported to Israeli markets inTel Aviv,Beersheba andHaifa.[265] Around 17,000 factories and workshops are located throughout the Area H1.[265] Historically, the traditional glass industry is popular in Hebron.[265] A new industrial city has been built inTarqumiyah, which houses more than 140 factories. Royal Industrial Trading operates a pipe manufacturing plant in Hebron, which is spread across an area of 40,000 square meters (9.9 acres) and employs over 650 people.[269] In 2021, an electronic recycling factory was opened inIdhna and operates to this day.[270] TheEuropean Union and theWorld Bank proposed to construct a regional water treatment plant, which will treat existing sewage stream coming from 80% of the city.[271] The city is a hub for the jewelry industry and houses approximately 70 jewelry factories employing over 1500 workers.[272]
Super Nimer company manufactures sanitary ware products and water network from its factory, whose area ranges from 30,000 square meters (7.4 acres) to 45,000 square meters (11 acres).[273] Opened in 2004, Super Tiger operates a factory spread across an area of 7 acres (28,000 m2).[273] During theCOVID-19 pandemic in the State of Palestine, Hebron rapidly transformed into a medical supplies manufacturing hub, with numerous factories installing and commissioning new production lines for the product and was approved by theMinistry of National Economy.[274]
Political status
Official 1997 agreement map of Palestinian controlled H1 and Israeli controlled H2.
Illustration showing areas H1 and H2 and adjacent Israeli settlements
Under theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestine passed by the UN in 1947, Hebron was envisaged to become part of an Arab state. While the Jewish leaders accepted the partition plan, the Arab leadership (theArab Higher Committee in Palestine and theArab League) rejected it, opposing any partition.[275][276] The aftermath of the 1948 war saw the city occupied and later unilaterally annexed by the kingdom ofJordan in a move supported by local Hebron officials. Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel occupied Hebron. In 1997, in accordance with theHebron Agreement, Israel withdrew from 80 percent of Hebron, which was handed over to the Palestinian Authority. Palestinian police would assume responsibilities in Area H1 and Israel would retain control in Area H2.
An international unarmed observer force—theTemporary International Presence in Hebron (TIPH) was subsequently established to help the normalization of the situation and to maintain a buffer between the Palestinian Arab population of the city and the Jewish population residing in their enclave in the old city. The TIPH operates with the permission of the Israeli government, meeting regularly with the Israeli army and theIsraeli Civil Administration, and is granted free access throughout the city. In 2018, the TIPH came under criticism in Israel due to incidents where an employee was, according to the Israeli police, filmed puncturing the tires of the car of anIsraeli settler, and another instance where an observer was deported after slapped a settler boy.[224]
The post-1967 settlement in Hebron was driven by theological doctrines from theMercaz HaRav Kook, which consider theLand of Israel and its people as holy, and believe that the messianic Age ofRedemption has arrived. Hebron holds special significance in this narrative, with traditions linking it toAbraham,King David, and the entrance to theGarden of Eden.[277] Settling in Hebron is seen as a right and duty, a favor to the world, and an example of being "a light unto the nations" (Or la-Goyim).[277] This viewpoint has resulted in numerous violent clashes with Palestinians, which some settlers see as contributing to the messianic process.
Occupation and settlements
In 1968, RabbiMoshe Levinger and a group of Israelis, disguised as tourists, rented the main hotel in Hebron and refused to leave.[278][279] The government initially wanted to evacuate the settlers but eventually allowed them to relocate to a nearby military base, which became the settlement ofKiryat Arba.[280] After lobbying efforts, the settlement gained support from some Israeli leaders. Over time, the settlement expanded with theoutpostGivat Ha'avot.[281] The operation was planned and financed by theMovement for Greater Israel.[282] In 2011, theIsraeli Supreme Court ruled that Jews have no right to properties they possessed in places like Hebron before 1948 and are not entitled to compensation for their losses.[153] Originally named Hesed l'Avraham, Beit Hadassah was constructed in 1893 with donations ofBaghdadi Jewish families and was the only modern medical facility in Hebron. In 1909, it was renamed afterHadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America, which took responsibility for the medical staff and provided free medical care to all.[283] In 1979, a group of 15 settler mothers and their 35 children squatted in the Dabouia building in Hebron, exploiting the government's indecision duringnegotiations with Egypt.[284] Led by Miriam Levinger, they established a bridgehead for Jewish resettlement and created conflict with Arab shopkeepers.[285] A retaliatory attack by a Palestinian group resulted in the death of six yeshiva students.[285] Despite appeals to the Israeli Supreme Court, the settlers remained.[286] The following year, the government legitimized residency in Hebron and expelled the elected mayor.[287] This pattern of settlement followed by hostilities with Palestinians was repeated in Tel Rumeida.[288][289][284]
Abraham Avinu Synagogue in 1925
TheAbraham Avinu Synagogue was the physical and spiritual center of its neighborhood and regarded as one of the most beautiful synagogues in Palestine. It was the center of Jewish worship in Hebron until it was burnt down during the1929 riots. In 1948 under Jordanian rule, the remaining ruins were razed.[290] The Avraham Avinu quarter was established next to the Vegetable and Wholesale Markets onAl-Shuhada Street in the south of the Old City. The vegetable market was closed by the Israeli military and some of the neighboring houses were occupied by settlers and soldiers. Settlers started to take over the closed Palestinian stores, despite explicit orders of the Israeli Supreme Court that the settlers should vacate these stores and the Palestinians should be allowed to return.[280]Beit Romano [fr] was built and owned by Yisrael Avraham Romano ofConstantinople and servedSephardi Jews from Turkey. In 1901, ayeshiva was established there with a dozen teachers and up to 60 students.[283] In 1982, Israeli authorities took over a Palestinian education office (Osama Ben Munqez School) and the adjacent bus station. The school was turned into a settlement, and the bus station into a military base against an order of theIsraeli Supreme Court.[280] In 1807 the immigrant Sephardic Rabbi Haim Yeshua Hamitzri (Haim theJewish Egyptian) purchased 5 dunams on the outskirts of the city and in 1811 he signed a contract for a 99-year lease on a further 800 dunams of land, which included 4 plots inTel Rumeida. The plots were administered by his descendant Haim Bajaio after Jews left Hebron. Settlers' claims to this land are based on these precedents, but are dismissed by the rabbi's heir.[291] In 1984, settlers established a caravan outpost there called Ramat Yeshai. In 1998, the government recognized it as a settlement, and in 2001 theDefence Minister approved the building of the first housing units.[280]
In 2012, Israel Defense Forces called for the immediate removal of a new settlement, because it was seen as a provocation.[292] The IDF, in accordance with settler demands, requested the removal of a Palestinian flag on a Hebronite rooftop contiguous to settlements, though no rule forbids the practice. According to Palestinians, the IDF negotiated the removal of the flag in exchange for the release of a resident of Hebron from legal custody.[293] In August 2016, Israel announced its intention to allow settlement building in the military compound ofPlugat Hamitkanim in Hebron, which had been expropriated for military purposes in the 1990s.[294] In late 2019, the Israeli Defense MinisterNaftali Bennett instructed themilitary administration to inform the Palestinian municipality of the government's intention to reconstruct infrastructure in the old Hebron fruit and vegetable market in order to establish a Jewish neighborhood there, which would allow for doubling the city's settler population. The area's original residents, who have protected tenancy rights there, were compelled to evacuate the zone after theCave of the Patriarchs massacre. The original site was under Jewish ownership prior to 1948. The plan proposes that the empty shops remain Palestinian while the units built over them house Jewish Israelis.[295][296][297]
Hebron is home to numerous mosques, synagogues, churches, parks, palaces, castles and forts.[298] TheOld City of Hebron was a declared a PalestinianWorld Heritage Site byUNESCO on July 7, 2017.[299] The move caused controversies and faced opposition from Israeli officials who objected to it being called as Palestinian site, instead of Israeli.[300][298] It is one of the best preserved sites of theMamluk era.[298]
The tombs of other biblical figures –Abner ben Ner,Otniel ben Kenaz,Ruth andJesse are also located in the city.[298] It is reverred to Christians, Muslims and Jews.[298] These sites are located in the H2 region, which is controlled by the Israeli authorities.
The early Ottoman-eraAbraham Avinu Synagogue in the city's historic Jewish Quarter was built in 1540 and restored in 1738.[298]
Hebron is also home to several sites for Christian worship, with numerous churches located around the city.[298] TheOak of Sibta (Oak of Abraham) is an ancient tree which, in non-Jewish tradition,[301] is said to mark the place where Abraham pitched his tent.[298] TheRussian Orthodox Church owns the site and the nearbyAbraham's Oak Holy Trinity Monastery, consecrated in 1925.[298] Hebron is one of the few cities to have preserved itsMamluk architecture.[298] Many structures were built during the period, especially Sufizawiyas.[302][298]
Other sites:
Situated on the northeast of the city, Wadi al–Quff Natural Reserve is visited by 2,000 people, mostly on weekends.[232] It is currently under the management of the Palestinian government.[232]
Khirbet al–Karmil is home to Crusader pool, ruined Byzantine church and Crusader fortress.[303]
As-Samu is an ancient biblical village, currently a modern town.[303] It is home to 4th century synagogue, numerous Ottoman-era structure and an Islamic building, probably built during the time ofSaladin of theAyyubid dynasty.[303]
Some Jewish traditions regardingAdam place him in Hebron after his expulsion fromEden. Another hasCain killAbel there. A third hasAdam and Eve buried in the cave of Machpelah. A Jewish-Christian tradition had it that Adam was formed from the red clay of the field ofDamascus, near Hebron.[304][305] A tradition arose in medieval Jewish texts that the Cave of the Patriarchs itself was the very entrance to theGarden of Eden.[306] During the Middle Ages, pilgrims and the inhabitants of Hebron would eat the red earth as a charm against misfortune.[307][308] Others report that the soil was harvested for export as a precious medicinal spice inEgypt,Arabia,Ethiopia andIndia and that the earth refilled after every digging.[304] Legend also tells thatNoah planted his vineyard on Mount Hebron.[309] Inmedieval Christian tradition, Hebron was one of the three cities whereElizabeth was said to live, the legend implying that it might have been the birthplace ofJohn the Baptist.[310][311]
One Islamic tradition has it thatMuhammad alighted in Hebron during hisnight journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and the mosque in the city is said to conserve one of his shoes.[312] Another tradition states that Muhammad arranged for Hebron and its surrounding villages to become part ofTamim al-Dari's domain; this was implemented duringUmar's reign as caliph. According to the arrangement, al-Dari and his descendants were only permitted to tax the residents for their land and thewaqf of the Ibrahimi Mosque was entrusted to them.[313] Thesimat al-Khalil or "Table of Abraham" is attested to in the writings of the 11th centuryPersian travelerNasir-i Khusraw.[298] According to the account, this early Islamic food distribution center — which predates the Ottomanimarets — gave all visitors to Hebron a loaf of bread, a bowl oflentils inolive oil, and someraisins.[314]
According to Tamara Neuman, settlement by a community of Jewish religious fundamentalists has brought about three major changes by redesigning a Palestinian area in terms of biblical imagery and origins: remaking over these revamped religious sites to endow them with an innovative centrality to Jewish worship, that, she argues, effectively erases thediasporic thrust of Jewish tradition; and writing out the overlapping aspects of Judaism, Christianity and Islam in such a way that the possibility of accommodation between the three intertwined traditions is eradicated, while the presence of Palestinians themselves is erased by violent methods.[315]
^Y.L. Arbeitman,The Hittite is Thy Mother: An Anatolian Approach to Genesis 23, (1981) pp. 889-1026, argues that anIndo-European root *ar-, with the same meaning as the semitic rootḥbr, namely 'to join' may underlie part of the earlier nameKiryat-Arba.[7]
^Cazelles 1981, p. 195 compares Amoriteḫibru(m). Two roots are in play,ḥbr/ḫbr. The root has magical overtones, and develops pejorative connotations in late Biblical usage.
^Khalidi, Walid.Before Their Diaspora : A Photographic History of the Palestinians, 1876-1948. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1991, 61.
^Na'aman 2005, p. 361 These non-Semitic names perhaps echo either a tradition of a group of elite professional troops (Philistines, Hittites), formed in Canaan whose ascendancy was overthrown by the West-Semitic clan of Caleb. They would have migrated from the Negev,
^Joshua 10:3, 5, 3–39; 12:10, 13.Na'aman 2005, p. 177 doubts this tradition. "The book of Joshua is not a reliable source for either a historical or a territorial discussion of the Late Bronze Age, and its evidence must be disregarded".
^Glick 1994, p. 46, citingJoshua 10:36–42 and the influence this has had on certain settlers in the West Bank.
^Gottwald 1999, p. 153: "certain conquests claimed for Joshua are elsewhere attributed to single tribes or clans, for example, in the case of Hebron (inJoshua 10:36–37, Hebron's capture is attributed to Joshua; inJudges 1:10 to Judah; in Judges 1:20 and Joshua 14:13–14; 15:13–14" to Caleb.
^Duke 2010, pp. 93–94 is sceptical.'This should be considered a raid on Hebron instead of a conquest based on subsequent events in the book of I Maccabees.'
^Gil 1997, pp. 56–57 cites the late testimony of two monks, Eudes and Arnoul CE 1119–1120:'When they (the Muslims) came to Hebron they were amazed to see the strong and handsome structures of the walls and they could not find an opening through which to enter, then the Jews happened to come, who lived in the area under the former rule of the Greeks (that is the Byzantines), and they said to the Muslims: give us (a letter of security) that we may continue to live (in our places) under your rule (literally-amongst you) and permit us to build a synagogue in front of the entrance (to the city). If you will do this, we shall show you where you can break in. And it was so'.
^Runciman 1965a, p. 307 Runciman also (pp. 307–08) notes that Gerard of Avesnes was a knight fromHainault held hostage atArsuf, north ofJaffa, who had been wounded by Godfrey's own forces during the siege of the port, and later returned by the Muslims to Godfrey as a token of good will.
^Gil 1997, p. 207. Note to editors. This account, always in Moshe Gil, refers to two distinct events, the Arab conquest from Byzantium, and the Kurdish-Arab conquest from Crusaders. In both the manuscript is a monkish chronicle, and the words used, and event described is identical. We may have a secondary source confusion here.
^David 2010, p. 24.Tahrir registers document 20 households in 1538/9, 8 in 1553/4, 11 in 1562 and 1596/7. Gil however suggests thetahrir records of the Jewish population may be understated.
^Barnay 1992, pp. 89–90 gives the figures of 12,000 quadrupling to 46,000Kuruş.
^Marcus 1996, p. 85. In 1770, they received financial assistance from North American Jews, which amounted in excess of £100.
^Van Luit 2009, p. 42. In 1803, the rabbis and elders of the Jewish community were imprisoned after failing to pay their debts. In 1807, the community did succeed in purchasing a 5-dunam (5,000 m2) plot where Hebron's wholesale market stands today.
^Wilson 1847, pp. 355–381, 372:The rabbi of the Ashkenazi community, who said they numbered 60 mainly Polish and Russian emigrants, professed no knowledge of the Sephardim in Hebron (p. 377).
^Wilson 1881, p. 195 mentions a different set of names, the Quarter of the Cloister Gate (Harat Bab ez Zawiyeh);the Quarter of the Sanctuary (Haret el Haram), to the south-east.
^Isaac Samuel Emmanuel, Suzanne A. Emmanuel.History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, Volume 2. American Jewish Archives. 1970. p. 754: "Between 1869 and 1871 Hebron was plagued with a severe drought. Food was so scarce that the little available sold for ten times the normal value. Although the rains came in 1871, there was no easing of the famine, for the farmers had no seed to sow. The [Jewish] community was obliged to borrow money from non-Jews at exorbitant interest rates in order to buy wheat for their fold. Their leaders finally decided to send their eminent Chief Rabbi Eliau [Soliman] Mani to Egypt to obtain relief."
^Tarākī 2006, pp. 12–14: "Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and well into the twentieth, Hebron was a peripheral, "borderline" community, attracting poor itinerant peasants and those with Sufi inclinations from its environs. The tradition ofshorabat Sayyidna Ibrahim, a soup kitchen surviving into the present day and supervised by theawqaf, and that of the Sufizawaya gave the city a reputation for being an asylum for the poor and the spiritual. (Ju'beh 2003).
^Kupferschmidt 1987, p. 82: "In any event, after his appointment, Abd al-Hayy al-Khatib not only played a prominent role in the disturbances of 1929, but, in general, appeared as one of the few loyal adherents of Hajj Amin in that town."
^Post-holocaust and anti-semitism – Issues 40–75 – Page 35 Merkaz ha-Yerushalmi le-ʻinyene tsibur u-medinah, Temple University. Center for Jewish Community Studies – 2006: "After the 1929 riots in Mandatory Palestine, the non-Jewish French writerAlbert Londres asked him why the Arabs had murdered the old, pious Jews in Hebron and Safed, with whom they had no quarrel. The mayor answered: "In a way you behave like in a war. You don't kill what you want. You kill what you find. Next time they will all be killed, young and old." Later on, Londres spoke again to the mayor and tested him ironically by saying: "You cannot kill all the Jews. There are 150,000 of them."Nashashibi answered "in a soft voice, 'Oh no, it'll take two days."
^Segev 2001, pp. 325–26:The Zionist Archives preserves lists of Jews who were saved by Arabs; one list contains 435 names.
^Thomas A Idinopulos, Jerusalem, 1994, p. 300, "So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem...had to produce a baptismal certificate."
^Armstrong, Karen,Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, 1997, "Only clergy, diplomats, UN personnel, and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other. The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates—to prove they were not Jewish ... ."
^Auerbach 2009, p. 79: "Under Jordanian rule, the last vestiges of a Jewish historical presence in Hebron were obliterated. The Avraham Avinu synagogue, already in ruins, was razed; a pen for goats, sheep, and donkeys was built on the site."
^Sternhell 1999, p. 337: "In building this new Jewish town, one was sending a message to the international community: for the Jews, the sites connected with Jewish history are inalienable, and if later, for circumstantial reasons, the state of Israel is obliged to give one or another of them up, the step is not considered final."
^Gorenberg 2007, p. 151: "David's kingdom was a model for themessianic kingdom. David began in Hebron, so settling Hebron would lead to final redemption."
^Segev 2008, p. 698: "Hebron was considered a holy city; the massacre of Jews there in 1929 was imprinted onnational memory along with the great pogroms of Eastern Europe. The messianic fervor that characterized the Hebron settlers was more powerful than the awakening that led people to settle in East Jerusalem: while Jerusalem had already been annexed, the future of Hebron was still unclear."
^Bovard 2004, p. 265, citing Charles A. Radin (July 31, 2002). "A Top Israeli Says Settlers Incited Riot in Hebron".The Boston Globe; Amos Harel and Jonathan Lis (July 31, 2002). "Minister's Aide Calls Hebron Riots a 'Pogrom'".Haaretz. p. 409, notes 55, 56.
^Without Prejudice: The Eaford International Review of Racial Discrimination. International Organization for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination – 1987. p. 81.
^Bovard 2004, p. 265. Meir Tayar, commander of the Hebron Border Police at the time testified that, 'Instructions are to take cover, wait until the clip is empty or the gun jams and then overpower him. Even if I had been there (in the mosque), I could not have done anything-there were special orders.'
^"Palestine Refugees: a challenge for the International Community".ReliefWeb. United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East. October 10, 2006. Archived fromthe original on October 17, 2006.Settler violence has forced out over half the Palestinian population in some neighborhoods in the downtown area of Hebron. This once bustling community is now eerily deserted, and presents a harrowing existence for those few Palestinians who dare to remain or who are too deep in poverty to move elsewhere.
^David Shulman (March 22, 2013)."Hope in Hebron".New York Review of Books. "Those who still live on Shuhada Street can't enter their own homes from the street. Some use the rooftops to go in and out, climbing from one roof to another before issuing into adjacent homes or alleys. Some have cut gaping holes in the walls connecting their homes to other (often deserted) houses and thus pass through these buildings until they can exit into a lane outside or up a flight of stairs to a passageway on top of the old casba market. According to a survey conducted by the human-rights organization B'Tselem in 2007, 42 percent of the Palestinian population in the city center of Hebron (area H2)—some 1,014 families—have abandoned their homes and moved out, most of them to area H1, now under Palestinian control."
^Jordan Journal of Physics ARTICLE Radionuclides Measurements in Some Rock Samples Collected from the Environment of Hebron Governorate -Palestine - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/West-Bank-geographical-map-and-sample-location-of-the-Hebron-region_fig1_311993953 [accessed August 3, 2024]
^A ghetto state of ghettos: Palestinians under Israeli citizenship, Mary Boger, City University of New York. Sociology – 2008. p. 93: "The development of the Islamic Movement in Israel owes much to the Israeli and Jordanian governments who collaborated to establish an Islamic University in al-Khalil (Hebron), headed by Shaykh Muhammad Ali al-Ja'bari a prominent anti-PLO leader who served as minister in Jordan and in the internal circle of kings Abd-allah and Husayn, who are known to have befriended the Israeli occupation."
^Frederick Adolphus Packard (1842).The Union Bible Dictionary. American Sunday-School Union. p. 304.About four hundred families of Arabs dwell in Hebron, and about one hundred and twenty families of Jews; the latter having been greatly reduced in number by a bloody battle in 1834, between them and the troops of Ibrahim Pasha.
^abPerera 1996, pp. 178: "As I made my way to the Machpelah, I passed a curious scene. The Hadassah hospital of Hebron, which is Arab-administered, had been taken over by Israeli women of Kiryat Arba, the new settlement on the hill overlooking the city. Miriam Levinger, wife of Moshe Levinger, the militant right-wing rabbi who founded Kiryat Arba, was screaming in her Brooklyn-accented Hebrew at the Palestinian police, who were – very politely – attempting to remove the women from the hospital grounds."
^Vitullo, Anita (2003). "People Tied to Place: Strengthening Cultural Identity in Hebron's Old City".Journal of Palestine Studies.33 (1): 72.doi:10.1525/jps.2003.33.1.68.ISSN0377-919X.
^Finn 1868, p. 184:'the great oak of Sibta, commonly called Abraham's oak by most people except the Jews, who do not believe in any Abraham's oak there. The great patriarch planted, indeed, a grove at Beersheba; but the "Eloné Mamre" they declare to have been "plains", not "oaks", (which would be Alloné Mamre,) and to have been situated northwards instead of westwards from the present Hebron.'
^Miscellanies of divinitie: divided into three books Edward Kellet, 1633. p. 223: "Sixthly, the field of Damascus, where the red earth lieth, of which they report Adam was formed; which earth is tough, and may be wrought like wax, and lieth close by Hebron."
^Woodhead, Christine (December 15, 2011).The Ottoman World. Routledge. p. 73.ISBN978-1-136-49894-7.
^Neuman 2018, p. 5: "This narrowed or fundamentalist focus involves three further changes that are also useful for framing this study: the first is that religiously inscribed space, particularly the remaking of many Palestinian areas into a geography of biblical sites and origins, has been given a new significance in the construction of a distinct Jewish (settler) identity. Spatial reorganization has also resulted in a range of incremental practices included under the rubric of religion that link up with this process of inscription— including renaming, reenvisioning, and rebuilding. These practices in turn support and magnify resolute place-based attachments. The second shift is that these remade biblical sites, specifically in Hebron and within the Tomb of the Patriarchs itself, are being given a new centrality in Jewish observance, one that largely cancels out the exilic orientation of Jewish tradition. They give rise to a form of Jewish observance focusing on exact origins and specific graves to the exclusion of a more characteristic yearning for the messianic future. Third, the final change entails writing out the many historical convergences between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam reflected in the traditions themselves so as to eliminate possibilities for accommodating difference, while using Jewish observance and forms of direct violence in order to erase the presence of an existing Palestinian population."
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Emmett, Chad F. (2000)."Sharing Sacred Space in the Holy Land". In Murphy, Alexander B.; Johnson, Douglas L.; Haarmann, Viola (eds.).Cultural encounters with the environment: enduring and evolving geographic themes. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 261–82.ISBN978-0-7425-0106-5.
Frenkel, Yehoshua (2011).Hebron — An Islamic Sacred City (634–1099) (in JSTOR) (חברון — עיר קודש אסלאמית 634–1099 לסה"נ) (Catedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv, issue 141, p. 27 – 52)(in Hebrew)
Glick, Leonard B. (1994)."Religion and Genocide". InCharny, I. W. (ed.).The Widening Circle of Genocide. Genocide: A Critical Bibliography. Vol. 3. TRansaction Publishers/Institute on the Holocaust and Genocide. pp. 43–74.ISBN978-1-412-83965-5. RetrievedJanuary 20, 2010.
Kraeling, E.G.H. (April 1925). "The Early Cult of Hebron and Judg. 16:1–3".The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures.41 (3):174–178.doi:10.1086/370066.S2CID171070877.
Mulder, M.J. (2004)."Qirya". In Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer; Fabry, Heinz-Josef (eds.).Theological dictionary of the Old Testament. Vol. 13. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 164–167.ISBN978-0-8028-2337-3. RetrievedJuly 26, 2011.
Salaville, Sévérien (1910)."Hebron". InHerbermann, C.G.;Pace, E.A.;Pallen, C.B.;Shahan, T.J.; Wynne, John Joseph; MacErlean, Andrew Alphonsus (eds.).The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline, and history of the Catholic church. Vol. 7. Robert Appleton company. pp. 184–186.
Weber, Elizabeth Dolly; Dubovoy, Sina (1995)."Hebron (West Bank)". In Ring, T.; Salkin, R.M.; Boda, S.L. (eds.).International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa. Fitzroy Dearborn.ISBN978-1-884964-03-9.
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