Another belief is in anaxis mundi orworld tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. InIndian religions, heaven is considered asSvargaloka,[1] and the soul is again subjected torebirth in different living forms according to itskarma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achievesMoksha orNirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as theotherworld.
At least in the Abrahamic faiths ofChristianity,Islam, and some schools ofJudaism, as well asZoroastrianism, heaven is the realm ofafterlife where good actions in the previous life are rewarded for eternity (Hell being the place where bad behavior is punished).
"heofones", an ancient Anglo-Saxon word for heavens inBeowulf
The modern English wordheaven is derived from the earlier (Middle English)heven (attested 1159); this in turn was developed from the previousOld English formheofon. By about 1000,heofon was being used in reference to theChristianized "place where God dwells", but originally, it had signified "sky, firmament"[2] (e.g. inBeowulf, c. 725).
The further derivation of this form is uncertain. A connection toProto-Indo-European*ḱem- "cover, shroud", via a reconstructed*k̑emen- or*k̑ōmen- "stone, heaven", has been proposed.[5]
Others endorse the derivation from a Proto-Indo-European root*h₂éḱmō "stone" and, possibly, "heavenly vault" at the origin of this word, which then would have ascognatesancient Greek ἄκμων (ákmōn "anvil, pestle;meteorite"),Persian آسمان (âsemân, âsmân "stone, sling-stone; sky, heaven") andSanskrit अश्मन् (aśman "stone, rock, sling-stone;thunderbolt; thefirmament").[4] In the latter case Englishhammer would be another cognate to the word.
The ancient Mesopotamians regarded the sky as a series of domes (usually three, but sometimes seven) covering theflat Earth.[8] Each dome was made of a different kind of precious stone.[9] The lowest dome of heaven was made ofjasper and was the home of thestars.[10][11] The middle dome of heaven was made ofsaggilmut stone and was the abode of theIgigi.[10][11] The highest and outermost dome of heaven was made ofluludānītu stone and was personified asAn, the god of the sky.[12][10][11] Thecelestial bodies were equated with specific deities as well.[9] The planetVenus was believed to beInanna, the goddess of sex and war.[13][9] TheSun was her brotherUtu, the god of justice, and theMoon was their fatherNanna.[9]
In ancient Near Eastern cultures in general and in Mesopotamia in particular, humans had little to no access to the divine realm.[14][15] Heaven and Earth were separated by their very nature;[11] humans could see and be affected by elements of the lower heaven, such as stars and storms,[11] but ordinary mortals could not go to Heaven because it was the abode of the gods alone.[15][16][11] In theEpic of Gilgamesh,Gilgamesh says toEnkidu, "Who can go up to heaven, my friend? Only the gods dwell with Shamash forever."[16] Instead, after a person died, his or her soul went toKur (later known asIrkalla), a dark shadowyunderworld, located deep below the surface of the earth.[15][17]
All souls went to the same afterlife,[15][17] and a person's actions during life had no impact on how he would be treated in the world to come.[15][17] Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that Inanna had the power to bestow special favors upon her devotees in the afterlife.[17][18] Despite the separation between heaven and earth, humans sought access to the gods throughoracles andomens.[6] The gods were believed to live in Heaven,[6][19] but also in their temples, which were seen as the channels of communication between Earth and Heaven, which allowed mortal access to the gods.[6][20] TheEkur temple inNippur was known as the "Dur-an-ki", the "mooring rope" of heaven and earth.[21] It was widely thought to have been built and established byEnlil himself.[7]
The ancientHittites believed that some deities lived in Heaven while others lived in remote places on Earth, such as mountains, where humans had little access.[14] In the Middle Hittite myths, Heaven is the abode of the gods. In theSong of Kumarbi,Alalu was king in Heaven for nine years before giving birth to his son,Anu. Anu was himself overthrown by his son,Kumarbi.[22][23][24][25]
Almost nothing is known ofBronze Age (pre-1200 BC) Canaanite views of heaven and the archaeological findings atUgarit (destroyed c. 1200 BC) have not provided information. The first century Greek authorPhilo of Byblos may have preserved elements ofIron AgePhoenician religion in hisSanchuniathon.[26]
Zoroaster, the Zoroastrian prophet who introduced theGathas, spoke of the existence of Heaven and Hell.[27][28]
Historically, the unique features of Zoroastrianism, such as its conception of heaven, hell, angels, monotheism, belief in free will, and the day of judgement, among other concepts, may have influenced other religious and philosophical systems, including the Abrahamic religions, Gnosticism, Northern Buddhism, and Greek philosophy.[29][28]
As in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, in the Hebrew Bible, the universe is commonly divided into two realms: heaven (šāmayim) and earth ('ereṣ).[6] Sometimes a third realm is added: either "sea",[30] "water under the earth",[31] or sometimes a vague "land of the dead" that is never described in depth.[32][6] The structure of heaven itself is not fully described in the Hebrew Bible,[33] but the fact that the Hebrew wordšāmayim is plural has been interpreted by scholars as an indication that the ancient Israelites envisioned the heavens as having multiple layers, much like the ancient Mesopotamians.[33] This reading is also supported by the use of the phrase "heaven of heavens" in verses such as Deuteronomy 10:14,[34] 1 Kings 8:27,[35] and 2 Chronicles 2:6.[36][33]
In line with the typical view of most Near Eastern cultures, the Hebrew Bible depicts Heaven as a place that is inaccessible to humans.[37] Although some prophets are occasionally granted temporary visionary access to heaven, such as in 1 Kings 22:19–23,[38] Job 1:6–12[39] and 2:1–6,[40] and Isaiah 6,[41] they hear only God's deliberations concerning the Earth and learn nothing of what Heaven is like.[33] There is almost no mention in the Hebrew Bible of Heaven as a possible afterlife destination for human beings, who are instead described as "resting" inSheol.[42][43] The only two possible exceptions to this areEnoch, who is described in Genesis 5:24[44] as having been "taken" by God, and the prophetElijah, who is described in 2 Kings 2:11[45] as having ascended to Heaven in a chariot of fire.[33] According to Michael B. Hundley, the text in both of these instances is ambiguous regarding the significance of the actions being described[33] and in neither of these cases does the text explain what happened to the subject afterwards.[33]
TheGod of the Israelites is described as ruling both Heaven and Earth.[46][33] Other passages, such as 1 Kings 8:27[35] state that even the vastness of Heaven cannot contain God's majesty.[33] A number of passages throughout the Hebrew Bible indicate that Heaven and Earth will one day come to an end.[47][33] This view is paralleled in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, which also regarded Heaven and Earth as vulnerable and subject to dissolution.[33] However, the Hebrew Bible differs from other ancient Near Eastern cultures in that it portrays the God of Israel as independent of creation and unthreatened by its potential destruction.[33] Because most of the Hebrew Bible concerns the God of Israel's relationship with his people, most of the events described in it take place on Earth, not in Heaven.[48] TheDeuteronomistic source,Deuteronomistic History, andPriestly source all portray theTemple in Jerusalem as the sole channel of communication between Earth and Heaven.[49]
During the period of theSecond Temple (c. 515 BC – 70 AD), the Hebrew people lived under the rule of first the PersianAchaemenid Empire, then the Greek kingdoms of theDiadochi, and finally theRoman Empire.[50] Their culture was profoundly influenced by those of the peoples who ruled them.[50] Consequently, their views on existence after death were profoundly shaped by the ideas of the Persians, Greeks, and Romans.[51][52] The idea of theimmortality of the soul is derived from Greek philosophy[52] and the idea of theresurrection of the dead is thought to be derived from Persian cosmology,[52] although the later claim has been recently questioned.[53] By the early first century AD, these two seemingly incompatible ideas were often conflated by Hebrew thinkers.[52] The Hebrews also inherited from the Persians, Greeks, and Romans the idea that the human soul originates in the divine realm and seeks to return there.[50] The idea that a human soul belongs in Heaven and that Earth is merely a temporary abode in which the soul is tested to prove its worthiness became increasingly popular during theHellenistic period (323–31 BC).[43] Gradually, some Hebrews began to adopt the idea of Heaven as the eternal home of the righteous dead.[43]
TheAssumption of the Virgin, 1475–1476, byFrancesco Botticini (National Gallery London), shows three hierarchies and nine orders of angels, each with different characteristics.
Descriptions of Heaven in theNew Testament are more fully developed than those in the Old Testament, but are still generally vague.[54] As in the Old Testament, in the New Testament God is described as the ruler of Heaven and Earth, but his power over the Earth is challenged bySatan.[43] TheGospels of Mark andLuke speak of the "Kingdom of God" (Ancient Greek:βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ;basileía tou theou), while theGospel of Matthew more commonly uses the term "Kingdom of heaven" (Ancient Greek:βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν;basileía tōn ouranōn).[55][56][57][43] Both phrases are thought to have the same meaning,[58] but the author of the Gospel of Matthew changed the name "Kingdom of God" to "Kingdom of Heaven" in most instances because it was the more acceptable phrase in his own cultural and religious context in the late first century.[59]
Modern scholars agree that the Kingdom of God was an essential part of the teachings of thehistorical Jesus[60][61] but there is no agreement on what this kingdom was.[62][63] None of the gospels record Jesus as having explained exactly what the phrase "Kingdom of God" means.[61] The most likely explanation for this apparent omission is that the Kingdom of God was a commonly understood concept that required no explanation.[61]
According to Sanders and Casey, Jews inJudea during the early first century believed that God reigns eternally in Heaven,[60][64] but many also believed that God would eventually establish his kingdom on earth as well.[60][65] Because God's Kingdom was believed to be superior to any human kingdom, this meant that God would necessarily drive out the Romans, who ruled Judea, and establish his own direct rule over the Jewish people.[55][65] This belief is referenced in the first petition of theLord's Prayer, taught by Jesus to his disciples and recorded in Matthew[66] and Luke 11:2:[67] "Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven."[68][69]
Other scholars contend that Jesus' teaching of the Kingdom of God was of something that is present but also still yet to come.[70] For instance, Wright points to the synoptic gospels that Jesus' death and resurrection was anticipated as the climax and fulfillment of his "Kingdom of God" messages and that his combined prophecy about thetemple's doom, through apocalyptic language, would serve as his vindication.[71] The synoptic gospels and Pauline epistles portray Jesus as believing his death and resurrection would complete the work of inaugurating the Kingdom of God and that his followers who wrote everything down expressed their belief he had done so, using first-century Jewish idioms, and that such events "did with evil and launch the project of new creation".[72]
In the second century AD,Irenaeus of Lyons recorded a belief that, in accordance with John 14,[86] those who in theafterlife see theSaviour are in different mansions, some dwelling in the heavens, others inparadise and others in "the city".[87]
While the word used in all these writings, in particular the New Testament Greek wordοὐρανός (ouranos), applies primarily to thesky, it is also used metaphorically of the dwelling place of God and theblessed.[88][89] Similarly, though the English word "heaven" keeps its original physical meaning when used, for instance, in allusions to the stars as "lights shining through from heaven", and in phrases such asheavenly body to mean an astronomical object, the heaven or happiness that Christianity looks forward to is, according to Pope John Paul II, "neither an abstraction nor a physical place in the clouds, but a living, personal relationship with theHoly Trinity. It is our meeting with theFather which takes place in the risenChrist through the communion of theHoly Spirit."[84]
While the concept of Heaven (malkuth hashamaim מלכות השמים, theKingdom of Heaven) is much discussed inChristian thought, theJewish concept of the afterlife, sometimes known asolam haba, the World-to-come, is not discussed as often. TheTorah has little to say on the subject of survival after death, but by the time of the rabbis two ideas had made inroads among the Jews: one, which is probably derived from Greek thought,[90] is that of theimmortal soul which returns to its creator after death; the other, which is thought to be of Persian origin,[90] is that ofresurrection of the dead.
Jewish writings[which?] refer to a "new earth" as the abode of mankind following the resurrection of the dead. Originally, the two ideas ofimmortality and resurrection were different but in rabbinic thought they are combined: the soul departs from the body at death but is returned to it at theresurrection. This idea is linked to another rabbinic teaching, that men's good and bad actions are rewarded and punished not in this life but after death, whether immediately or at the subsequent resurrection.[90] Around 1 CE, thePharisees believed in an afterlife but theSadducees did not.[91]
TheMishnah has many sayings about theWorld to Come, for example, "Rabbi Yaakov said: This world is like a lobby before the World to Come; prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall."[92]
According toNicholas de Lange,Judaism offers no clear teaching about the destiny which lies in wait for the individual after death and its attitude to life after death has been expressed as follows: "For the future is inscrutable, and the accepted sources of knowledge, whether experience, or reason, or revelation, offer no clear guidance about what is to come. The only certainty is that each man must die – beyond that we can only guess."[90]
19th centuryPersian miniature depicting the artist's impression of heaven
Similar to Jewish traditions such as theTalmud, theQur'an andHadith frequently mention the existence of sevensamāwāt (سماوات), the plural ofsamāʾ (سماء), meaning 'heaven, sky, celestial sphere', and cognate with Hebrewshamāyim (שמים). Some of the verses in the Qur'an mentioning thesamaawat[94] are41:12,65:12 and71:15.Sidrat al-Muntaha, a large enigmatic Lote tree, marks the end of the seventh heaven and the utmost extremity for all of God's creatures and heavenly knowledge.[95]
One interpretation of "heavens" is that all the stars and galaxies (including theMilky Way) are part of the "first heaven", and "beyond that six still bigger worlds are there," which have yet to be discovered by scientists.[96]
According toShi'ite sources,Ali mentioned the names of the seven heavens as below:[97]
Still an afterlife destination of the righteous is conceived in Islam asJannah (Arabic:جنة "Garden [of Eden]" translated as "paradise"). RegardingEden or paradise the Quran says, "The description of the Paradise promised to the righteous is that under it rivers flow; eternal is its fruit as well as its shade. That is the ˹ultimate˺ outcome for the righteous. But the outcome for the disbelievers is the Fire!"[98] Islam rejects the concept oforiginal sin, and Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure. Children automatically go to paradise when they die, regardless of the religion of their parents.
Paradise is described primarily in physical terms as a place where every wish is immediately fulfilled when asked. Islamic texts describe immortal life in Jannah as happy, withoutnegative emotions. Those who dwell in Jannah are said to wear costly apparel, partake in exquisite banquets, and recline on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones. Inhabitants will rejoice in the company of their parents, spouses, and children. In Islam if one's good deeds outweigh one's sins then one may gain entrance to paradise only throughGod's mercy. Conversely, if one's sins outweigh their good deeds they are sent to hell. The more good deeds one has performed the higher the level of Jannah one is directed to.
MysticIbn Arabi's (13th century) depiction of Seven Paradises (different from seven heavens). Diagram of Jannat Futuhat al-Makkiyya, ca. 1238 (photo: after Futuhat al-Makkiyya, Cairo edition, 1911).
Quran verses which describe paradise include: 13:15, 18:31, 38:49–54, 35:33–35 and 52:17.[99]
The Quran refers to Jannah with different names:Al-Firdaws,Jannātu-′Adn ("Garden of Eden" or "Everlasting Gardens"),Jannatu-n-Na'īm ("Garden of Delight"),Jannatu-l-Ma'wa ("Garden of Refuge"),Dāru-s-Salām ("Abode of Peace"),Dāru-l-Muqāma ("Abode of Permanent Stay"),al-Muqāmu-l-Amin ("The Secure Station") andJannātu-l-Khuld ("Garden of Immortality"). In theHadiths, these are the different regions in paradise.[100]
According to theAhmadiyya view, much of the imagery presented in the Quran regarding Heaven, but also Hell, is metaphorical. They propound the verse which describes, according to them, how the life to come after death is different from the life on Earth. TheQuran says: "From bringing in your place others like you, and from developing you into a form which at present you know not."[101] According toMirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of theAhmadiyya sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul, as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an "embryonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born in which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.[102]
TheBaháʼí Faith regards the conventional description of heaven (and hell) as a specific place as symbolic. TheBaháʼí writings describe heaven as a "spiritual condition" where closeness to God is defined as heaven; converselyhell is seen as a state of remoteness from God.Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, has stated that the nature of the life of the soul in the afterlife is beyond comprehension in the physical plane, but has stated that the soul will retain its consciousness and individuality and remember its physical life; the soul will be able to recognize other souls and communicate with them.[103]
For Baháʼís, entry into the next life has the potential to bring great joy.[103] Bahá'u'lláh likened death to the process of birth. He explains: "The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in thewomb of its mother."[104] The analogy to the womb in many ways summarizes the Baháʼí view of earthly existence: just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development, the physical world provides for the development of the individualsoul. Accordingly, Baháʼís view life as a preparatory stage, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which will be needed in the next life.[103] The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the currentManifestation of God, which Baháʼís believe is currently Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh wrote, "Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved."[105]
The Baháʼí teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of souls in theafterlife, where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that souls lower in the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of those above. Each soul can continue to progress in the afterlife, but the soul's development is not entirely dependent on its own conscious efforts, the nature of which we are not aware, but also augmented by the grace of God, theprayers of others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in the name of that person.[103]
The cosmological description of the universe in theGnostic codexOn the Origin of the World presentsseven heavens created by the lesser god orDemiurge called Yaldabaoth, which are individually ruled over by one of hisArchons. Above these realms is the eighth heaven, where the benevolent,higher divinities dwell. During theend of days, the seven heavens of the Archons will collapse on each other. The heaven of Yaldabaoth will split in two and cause the stars in his celestial sphere to fall.[108]
In the nativeChineseConfucian traditions, heaven (Tian) is an important concept, where the ancestors reside and from which emperors drew their mandate to rule in their dynastic propaganda, for example.
Heaven is a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophies, and religions, and is on one end of the spectrum a synonym ofShangdi ("Supreme Deity") and on the other naturalistic end, a synonym fornature and the sky. The Chinese term for "heaven",Tian (天), derives from the name of the supreme deity of theZhou dynasty. After their conquest of theShang dynasty in 1122 BC, the Zhou people considered their supreme deityTian to be identical with theShang supreme deityShangdi.[109] The Zhou people attributed Heaven with anthropomorphic attributes, evidenced in the etymology of the Chinese character for heaven or sky, which originally depicted a person with a large cranium. Heaven is said to see, hear and watch over all people. Heaven is affected by people's doings, and having personality, is happy and angry with them. Heaven blesses those who please it and sends calamities upon those who offend it.[110] Heaven was also believed to transcend all other spirits and gods, withConfucius asserting, "He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray."[110]
Other philosophers born around the time of Confucius such asMozi took an even more theistic view of heaven, believing that heaven is the divine ruler, just as theSon of Heaven (the King of Zhou) is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that spirits and minor gods exist, but their function is merely to carry out the will of heaven, watching for evil-doers and punishing them. Thus they function as angels of heaven and do not detract from its monotheistic government of the world. With such a high monotheism, it is not surprising thatMohism championed a concept called "universal love" (jian'ai, 兼愛), which taught that heaven loves all people equally and that each person should similarly love all human beings without distinguishing between his own relatives and those of others.[111] InMozi'sWill of Heaven (天志), he writes:
"I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present."
Original Chinese: 「且吾所以知天之愛民之厚者有矣，曰以磨為日月星辰，以昭道之；制為四時春秋冬夏，以紀綱之；雷降雪霜雨露，以長遂五穀麻絲，使民得而財利之；列為山川谿谷，播賦百事，以臨司民之善否；為王公侯伯，使之賞賢而罰暴；賊金木鳥獸，從事乎五穀麻絲，以為民衣食之財。自古及今，未嘗不有此也。」
Mozi,Will of Heaven, Chapter 27, Paragraph 6, ca. 5th Century BC
Mozi criticized the Confucians of his own time for not following the teachings of Confucius. By the time of the laterHan dynasty, however, under the influence ofXunzi, the Chinese concept of heaven and Confucianism itself had become mostly naturalistic, though some Confucians argued that Heaven was where ancestors reside. Worship of heaven in China continued with the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being theTemple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to heaven, usually by slaughtering two healthy bulls as a sacrifice.
InBuddhism there are several heavens, all of which are still part ofsamsara (illusionary reality). Those who accumulate goodkarma may be reborn[112] in one of them. However, their stay in heaven is not eternal—eventually they will use up their good karma and will undergorebirth into another realm, as a human, animal or other being. Because heaven is temporary and part ofsamsara, Buddhists focus more on escaping the cycle of rebirth and reachingenlightenment (nirvana). Nirvana is not a heaven but a mental state.
According toBuddhist cosmology the universe is impermanent and beings transmigrate through several existential "planes" in which this human world is only one "realm" or "path".[113] These are traditionally envisioned as a vertical continuum with the heavens existing above the human realm, and the realms of the animals,hungry ghosts and hell beings existing beneath it. According to Jan Chozen Bays in her book,Jizo: Guardian of Children, Travelers, and Other Voyagers, the realm of theasura is a later refinement of the heavenly realm and was inserted between the human realm and the heavens. One important Buddhist heaven is theTrāyastriṃśa, which resemblesOlympus of Greek mythology.
In theMahayana world view, there are alsopure lands which lie outside this continuum and are created by the Buddhas upon attaining enlightenment. Rebirth in the pure land of Amitabha is seen as an assurance of Buddhahood, for once reborn there, beings do not fall back into cyclical existence unless theychoose to do so to save other beings, the goal of Buddhism being the obtainment of enlightenment and freeing oneself and others from the birth-death cycle.
TheTibetan wordBardo means literally "intermediate state". InSanskrit the concept has the nameantarabhāva.
The lists below are ordered from highest to lowest of the heavenly worlds.
Here the denizens are Brahmās, and the ruler isMahābrahmā. After developing the four Brahmavihāras, King Makhādeva rebirths here after death. The monk Tissa and Brāhmana Jānussoni were also reborn here.
The lifespan of a Brahmās is not stated but is not eternal.
The heaven of devas have "power over (others') creations". These devas do not create pleasing forms that they desire for themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who seek their favor. The ruler of this world is called Vaśavartin (Pāli: Vasavatti), who has longer life, greater beauty, more power and happiness and more delightful sense-objects than the other devas of his world. This world is also the home of the devaputra (being of a divine race) calledMāra, who endeavors to keep all beings of the Kāmadhātu in the grip of sensual pleasures. Māra is also sometimes called Vaśavartin, but in general these two dwellers in this world are kept distinct. The beings of this world are 3lǐ (1,400 m; 4,500 feet) tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition).
Nirmāṇarati (Pali:Nimmānaratī)
The world of devas "delighting in their creations". The devas of this world are capable of making any appearance to please themselves. The lord of this world is called Sunirmita (Pāli Sunimmita); his wife is the rebirth ofVisākhā, formerly the chiefupāsikā (female lay devotee) of the Buddha. The beings of this world are2+1⁄2lǐ (1,140 m; 3,750 feet) tall and live for 2,304,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition).
The world of the "joyful" devas, it is best known for being the world in which aBodhisattva lives before being reborn in the world of humans. Until a few thousand years ago, the Bodhisattva of this world was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu), who was reborn as Siddhārtha, who would become the BuddhaŚākyamuni; since then the Bodhisattva has been Nātha (or Nāthadeva) who will be reborn as Ajita and will become the BuddhaMaitreya (Pāli Metteyya). While this Bodhisattva is the foremost of the dwellers inTuṣita, the ruler of this world is another deva calledSantuṣita (Pāli: Santusita). The beings of this world are 2lǐ (910 m; 3,000 feet) tall and live for 576,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). Anāthapindika, a Kosālan householder and benefactor to the Buddha's order was reborn here.
The ruler of this heaven isIndra or Shakra, and the realm is also called Trayatrimia. Each denizen addresses other denizens with the title "mārisa".
The governing hall of this heaven is called Sudhamma Hall. This heaven has a garden Nandanavana with damsels, as its most magnificent sight.
Ajita, the Licchavi army general, was reborn here. Gopika, the Sākyan girl, was reborn as a male god in this realm.
Any Buddhist reborn in this realm can outshine any of the previously dwelling denizens because of the extra merit acquired for following the Buddha's teachings. The denizens here have a lifespan of 36,000,000 years.
The heaven "of the Four Great Kings", its rulers are the four Great Kings of the name,Virūḍhakaविरुद्धक,Dhṛtarāṣṭraधृतराष्ट्र,Virūpākṣaविरुपाक्ष, and their leaderVaiśravaṇaवैश्यवर्ण. The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also considered part of this world, as are the retinues of the four kings, composed ofKumbhāṇḍasकुम्भाण्ड (dwarfs),Gandharva गन्धर्वs (fairies),Nāgas नाग (snakes) andYakṣasयक्ष (goblins). The beings of this world are 230 m (750 feet) tall and live for 9,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition) or 90,000 years (Vibhajyavāda tradition).
Those for whom the world, the body, and the mind are all perfectly pure have accomplished the virtue of purity, and a superior level emerges. They return to the bliss of still extinction, and they are among those in the Heaven of Pervasive Purity
The Heaven of Limitless Purity
Those in whom the emptiness of purity manifests are led to discover its boundlessness. Their bodies and minds experience light ease, and they accomplish the bliss of still extinction. They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless Purity.
The Heaven of Lesser Purity
The heavenly beings for whom the perfection of light has become sound and who further open out the sound to disclose its wonder discover a subtler level of practice. They penetrate to the bliss of still extinction and are among those in the Heaven of Lesser Purity.
The Second Dhyana
Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by worries or vexations. Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure to the point that they have subdued their coarser outflows
The Light-Sound Heaven
Those who take in and hold the light to perfection accomplish the substance of the teaching. Creating and transforming the purity into endless responses and functions, they are among those in the Light-Sound Heaven.
The Heaven of Limitless Light
Those whose lights illumine each other in an endless dazzling blaze shine throughout the realms of the ten directions so that everything becomes like crystal. They are among those in the Heaven of Limitless Light.
The Heaven of Lesser Light
Those beyond the Brahma heavens gather in and govern the Brahma beings, for their Brahma conduct is perfect and fulfilled. Unmoving and with settled minds, they produce light in profound stillness, and they are among those in the Heaven of Lesser Light.
The First Dhyana
Those who flow to these levels will not be oppressed by any suffering or affliction. Although they have not developed proper samadhi, their minds are pure to the point that they are not moved by outflows.
The Great Brahma Heaven
Those whose bodies and minds are wonderfully perfect, and whose awesome deportment is not in the least deficient, are pure in the prohibitive precepts and have a thorough understanding of them as well. At all times these people can govern the Brahma multitudes as great Brahma lords, and they are among those in the Great Brahma Heaven.
The Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma
Those whose hearts of desire have already been cast aside, the mind apart from desire manifests. They have a fond regard for the rules of discipline and delight in being in accord with them. These people can practice the Brahma virtue at all times, and they are among those in the Heaven of the Ministers of Brahma.
The Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma
Those in the world who cultivate their minds but do not avail themselves of dhyana and so have no wisdom, can only control their bodies so as to not engage in sexual desire. Whether walking or sitting, or in their thoughts, they are totally devoid of it. Since they do not give rise to defiling love, they do not remain in the realm of desire. These people can, in response to their thoughts, assume the bodies of Brahma beings. They are among those in the Heaven of the Multitudes of Brahma.
The Six Desire Heavens
The cause for birth in the Six Desire Heavens are the ten virtuous actions.
The Heaven of the Comfort from Others' Transformations
Those who have no kind of worldly thoughts while doing what worldly people do, who are lucid and beyond such activity while involved in it, are capable at the end of their lives of entirely transcending states where transformations may be present and may be lacking. They are among those born in the Heaven of the Comfort from Others' Transformations.
The Heaven of Bliss by Transformation
Those who are devoid of desire, but who will engage in it for the sake of their partner, even though the flavor of doing so is like the flavor of chewing wax, are born at the end of their lives in a place of transcending transformations. They are among those born in the Heaven of Bliss by Transformation.
The Tushita Heaven
Those who practice constant silence, but who are not yet able to control their impulses when stimulated by contact, ascend at the end of their lives to a subtle and ethereal place; they will not be drawn into the lower realms. The destruction of the realms of humans and gods and the obliteration of the kalpas by the three disasters will not reach them. They are among those born in the Tushita Heaven.
The Suyama Heaven
Those who become temporarily involved when they meet with desire but who forget about it when it is finished. While in the human realm, one is less active and more quiet, abiding in light and emptiness where the illumination of sun and moon does not reach. By the end of their lives, these beings have their own light. They are among those born in the Suyama Heaven.
The Trayastrimsha Heaven
Those whose sexual love for their wives is slight, but who have not yet obtained the entire flavor of dwelling in purity, transcend the light of the sun and moon at the end of their lives, and reside at the summit of the human realm. They are among those born in the Trayastrimsha Heaven.
The Heaven of the Four Kings
Those with no interest in deviant sexual activity and develop a purity such that one produces light. When their life ends, they draw near to the sun and moon and are among those born in the Heaven of the Four Kings.
Ouyi Zhixu[114] explains that the Shurangama sutra only emphasizes avoidance of deviant sexual desire, but one would naturally need to abide by the 10 good conducts to be born in these heavens.
Attaining heaven is not the final pursuit in Hinduism as heaven itself is ephemeral and related to physical body. Only being tied by the bhoot-tattvas, heaven cannot be perfect either and is just another name for pleasurable and mundane material life. According toHindu cosmology, above the earthly plane, are other planes: (1) BhuvaLoka, (2)Swarga Loka, meaning Good Kingdom, is the general name for heaven in Hinduism, a heavenlyparadise of pleasure, where most of the Hindu Devatas (Deva) reside along with the king of Devas, Indra, and beatified mortals. Some other planes are Mahar Loka, Jana Loka, Tapa Loka and Satya Loka. Since heavenly abodes are also tied to the cycle of birth and death, any dweller of heaven or hell will again be recycled to a different plane and in a different form per the karma and "maya" i.e. the illusion of Samsara. This cycle is broken only by self-realization by the Jivatma. This self-realization isMoksha (Turiya, Kaivalya).
The concept of moksha is unique to Hinduism. Moksha stands for liberation from the cycle of birth and death and final communion with Brahman. With moksha, a liberated soul attains the stature and oneness withBrahman orParamatma. Different schools such as Vedanta, Mimansa, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Yoga offer subtle differences in the concept of Brahman, obvious Universe, its genesis and regular destruction, Jivatma, Nature (Prakriti) and also the right way in attaining perfect bliss or moksha.
In theVaishnava traditions the highest heaven isVaikuntha, which exists above the six heavenly lokas and outside of the mahat-tattva or mundane world. It's where eternally liberated souls who have attained moksha reside in eternal sublime beauty withLakshmi andNarayana (a manifestation ofVishnu).
In theNasadiya Sukta, the heavens/sky Vyoman is mentioned as a place from which an overseeing entity surveys what has been created. However, the Nasadiya Sukta questions the omniscience of this overseer.
The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown at right. Unlike the current convention of using North direction as the top of map, this uses South as the top. The shape is similar to a part of human form standing upright.
TheDeva Loka (heavens) are at the symbolic "chest", where all souls enjoying the positive karmic effects reside. The heavenly beings are referred to asdevas (masculine form) anddevis (feminine form). According to Jainism, there is not one heavenly abode, but several layers to reward appropriately the souls of varying degree of karmic merits. Similarly, beneath the "waist" are theNarka Loka (hell). Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life forms reside on the middle.
The pure souls (who reached Siddha status) reside at the very southernmost end (top) of the Universe. They are referred to in Tamil literature as தென்புலத்தார் (Kural 43).
Sikhs believe that heaven and hell are also both in this world where everyone reaps the fruit of karma.[115] They refer to good and evil stages of life respectively and can be lived now and here during our life on Earth.[116]Kabir in theGuru Granth Sahib rejects the otherworldly heaven and says that one can experience heaven on this Earth through the company of holy people.
He claims to know the Lord, who is beyond measure and beyond thought; By mere words, he plans to enter heaven. I do not know where heaven is. Everyone claims that he plans to go there. By mere talk, the mind is not appeased. The mind is only appeased, when egotism is conquered. As long as the mind is filled with the desire for heaven, He does not dwell at the Lord's Feet. Says Kabeer, unto whom should I tell this? The Company of the Holy is heaven.
TheNahua people such as theAztecs,Chichimecs and theToltecs believed that the heavens were constructed and separated into 13 levels. Each level had from one to many Lords living in and ruling these heavens. Most important of these heavens was Omeyocan (Place of Two). TheThirteen Heavens were ruled byOmeteotl, the dual Lord, creator of the Dual-Genesis who, as male, takes the name Ometecuhtli (Two Lord), and as female is named Omecihuatl (Two Lady).
In thecreation myths ofPolynesian mythology are found various concepts of the heavens and the underworld. These differ from one island to another. What they share is the view of the universe as an egg or coconut that is divided between the world of humans (earth), the upper world of heavenly gods, and the underworld. Each of these is subdivided in a manner reminiscent ofDante'sDivine Comedy, but the number of divisions and their names differs from one Polynesian culture to another.[118]
InMāori mythology, the heavens are divided into a number of realms. Different tribes number the heaven differently, with as few as two and as many as fourteen levels. One of the more common versions divides heaven thus:
Kiko-rangi, presided over by the gods Toumau
Waka-maru, the heaven of sunshine and rain
Nga-roto, the heaven of lakes where the godMaru rules
Hauora, where the spirits of newborn children originate
Wairua, where spirit gods live while waiting on those in
Naherangi or Tuwarea, where the great gods live presided over byRehua
The Māori believe these heavens are supported by pillars. Other Polynesian peoples see them being supported by gods (as inHawaii). In oneTahitian legend, heaven is supported by anoctopus.
An 1869 illustration by aTuomatuan chief portraying nine heavens
The Polynesian conception of the universe and its division is nicely illustrated by a famous drawing made by aTuomotuan chief in 1869. Here, the nine heavens are further divided into left and right, and each stage is associated with a stage in the evolution of the earth that is portrayed below. The lowest division represents a period when the heavens hung low over the earth, which was inhabited by animals that were not known to the islanders. In the third division is shown the first murder, the first burials, and the first canoes, built byRata. In the fourth division, the first coconut tree and other significant plants are born.[119]
It is believed inTheosophy, founded mainly byHelena Blavatsky, that each religion (including Theosophy) has its own individual heaven in various regions of the upperastral plane that fits the description of that heaven that is given in each religion, to which asoul that has beengood in their previous life on Earth will go. The area of the upper astral plane of Earth in the upper atmosphere where the various heavens are located is calledSummerland (Theosophists believehell is located in the lower astral plane of Earth which extends downward from the surface of the earth to itscenter). However, Theosophists believe that the soul is recalled back to Earth after an average of about 1400 years by theLords of Karma to incarnate again. The final heaven that souls go to billions of years in the future after they finish theircycle of incarnations is calledDevachan.[120]
AnarchistEmma Goldman expressed this view when she wrote, "Consciously or unconsciously, most theists see in gods and devils, heaven and hell, reward and punishment, a whip to lash the people into obedience, meekness and contentment."[121]
Some have argued that a belief in a reward after death is poor motivation for moral behavior while alive.[122][123]Sam Harris wrote, "It is rather more noble to help people purely out of concern for their suffering than it is to help them because you think the Creator of the Universe wants you to do it, or will reward you for doing it, or will punish you for not doing it. The problem with this linkage between religion and morality is that it gives people bad reasons to help other human beings when good reasons are available."[124]
InInside the Neolithic Mind (2005), Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue that many cultures around the world and through history neurally perceive a tiered structure of heaven, along with similarly structuredcircles of hell. The reports match so similarly across time and space that Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue for a neuroscientific explanation, accepting the percepts as real neural activations and subjective percepts during particularaltered states of consciousness.
Many people who come close to death and havenear-death experiences report meeting relatives or entering "the Light" in an otherworldly dimension, which shares similarities with the religious concept of heaven. Even though there are also reports of distressing experiences and negativelife-reviews, which share some similarities with the concept of hell, the positive experience of meeting or entering "the Light" is reported as an immensely intense feeling of a state of love, peace and joy beyond human comprehension. Together with this intensely positive-feeling state, people who have near-death experiences also report that consciousness or a heightened state of awareness seems as if it is at the heart of experiencing a taste of "heaven".[126]
^abGuus Kroonen:Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic (=Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, vol. 11). Brill, Leiden and Boston 2009, s. v. "Hemina- ~ *Hemna-". First published online: October 2010.
^Sabatino Moscati Face of the Ancient Orient 2001 Page 174 "The first, called 'Kingship in Heaven', tells how this kingship passes from Alalu to Anu, ... was king in heaven, Alalu was seated on the throne and the mighty Anu, first among the gods,"
^Moscatti, Sabatino (1968), "The World of the Phoenicians" (Phoenix Giant)
^Attridge, Harold. W., and R. A. Oden, Jr. (1981),Philo of Byblos: The Phoenician History: Introduction, Critical Text, Translation, Notes, CBQMS9 (Washington: D. C.: The Catholic Biblical Association of America).
^Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (1993), "Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern Research". McGill-Queen's Press.
^abFarhang, Merh (2003) "The Zoroastrian Tradition: An Introduction to the Ancient Wisdom of Zarathushtras". Mazda Publishers.
^Kriwackzek, Paul (2002), "In Search of Zarathustra". Vintage Books.
^Ehrman, Bart D. (2020).Heaven and Hell: A History of the Afterlife. Simon and Schuster. pp. 104–105.ISBN978-1-5011-3675-7.More recently scholars have questioned a Persian derivation for the Jewish doctrine because of certain problems of dating. Some experts have undercut the entire thesis by pointing out that we actually do not have any Zoroastrian texts that support the idea of resurrection prior to its appearance in early Jewish writings. It is not clear who influenced whom. Even more significant, the timing does not make sense: Judah emerged from Persian rule in the fourth century BCE, when Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) swept through the eastern Mediterranean and defeated the Persian Empire. But the idea of bodily resurrection does not appear in Jewish texts for well over a century after that.
^abcdNicholas de Lange,Judaism, Oxford University Press, 1986.
^Ariel, David S. (1995).What Do Jews Believe?. New York: Shocken Books. p. 74.ISBN978-0-8052-1059-0. "The Sadducees... did not believe in an afterlife. The Pharisees... subscribed to the theory of the afterlife."
^Ariel, David S. (1995).What Do Jews Believe?. New York: Shocken Books. p. 75.ISBN978-0-8052-1059-0. "According to the rabbis, the righteous receive their reward in the afterlife in the celestial Garden of Eden... This applies equally to Jews and non-Jews."
^Pickthall, M. M.; Eliasi, M. A. H. (1999).The Holy Qur'an (Transliteration in Roman Script). Laurier Books Limited.ISBN81-87385-07-3.
^Abdullah, Yusuf Ali (1946).The Holy Qur-an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Qatar National Printing Press. p. 1139, n. 3814.
^Herrlee Creel, "The Origin of the Deity T'ien" (1970), pp. 493–506.
^abJoseph Shih, "The Notion of God in the Ancient Chinese Religion," Numen, Vol. 16, Fasc. 2, pp. 99–138, Brill, 1969.
^Homer Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy," Philosophy of East and West, Vol 9, No 3/4, pp 163–172, University of Hawaii Press: 1960.
^But no soul actually goes through rebirth; seeanatta.
Barret, C. E. (2007). "Was dust their food and clay their bread?: Grave goods, the Mesopotamian afterlife, and the liminal role of Inana/Ištar".Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions.7 (1):7–65.doi:10.1163/156921207781375123.ISSN1569-2116.
Challoner, Richard (1801)."Day 17: On Heaven" .Think Well On't or, Reflections on the great truths of the Christian religion for every day of the month. T. Haydock.
Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992).Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. London, England: The British Museum Press.ISBN978-0-7141-1705-8.
Hundley, Michael B. (2015). "Heaven and Earth". In Balentine, Samuel E. (ed.).The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Theology. Vol. 1: ABR–JUS. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 451–457.ISBN978-0-19-023994-7.
Sanders, E. P. (1993).The Historical Figure of Jesus. London, England; New York, New York; Ringwood, Australia; Toronto, Ontario; and Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-014499-4.
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