Hazing (American English),initiation,[1]beasting[2] (British English),bastardisation (Australian English),ragging (South Asian English) ordeposition refers to any activity expected of someone in joining or participating in a group that humiliates, degrades, abuses, or endangers them regardless of a person's willingness to participate.[3]
Hazing is seen in many different types of social groups, includinggangs,sports teams,schools,cliques,universities,fire departments,[4]law enforcement,military units,prisons,fraternities and sororities, and evenworkplaces in somecases. The initiation rites can range from relatively benign pranks to protracted patterns of behavior that rise to the level of abuse or criminal misconduct.[5]
Hazing is often prohibited bylaw or institutions such as colleges and universities because it may include eitherphysical orpsychological abuse, such ashumiliation,nudity, orsexual abuse. Hazing activities have sometimes caused injuries or deaths.
While one explanation for hazing is that it increasesgroup cohesion orsolidarity, laboratory and observational evidence on its impacts onsolidarity are inconclusive. Other explanations include displaying dominance, eliminating less committed members, and protecting groups that provide large automatic benefits for membership from exploitation by new members.
In some languages, terms with a religious theme or etymology are preferred, such asbaptism orpurgatory (e.g.baptême in Belgian French,doop in Belgian Dutch,chrzest in Polish) or variations on a theme ofnaïveté and therite of passage such as a derivation from a term for freshman, for examplebizutage in European French,ontgroening ('de-green[horn]ing') in Dutch and Afrikaans (South Africa and Namibia),novatada in Spanish, fromnovato, meaning newcomer or rookie or a combination of both, such as in theFinnishmopokaste (literally 'moped baptism').[6] InLatvian, the wordiesvētības, which means 'in-blessings', is used, also standing for religious rites of passage, especiallyconfirmation. InSwedish, the term used isnollning, literally 'zeroing', as the first-year hazees still are 'zeroes' before attending their first year.[7] In Portugal, the termpraxe, which means 'practice' or 'habit', is used for initiation. At education establishments in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, this practice involves existing students baiting new students and is calledragging.[8]
Hazings are sometimes concentrated in a single session, which may be called ahell night,[9] prolonged to ahell week, or over a long period, resemblingfagging. In theItalian military, the term used wasnonnismo, fromnonno (literally 'grandfather'), a jargon term used for the soldiers who had already served for most of their draft period. A similar equivalent term exists in theRussian military, where a hazing phenomenon known asdedovshchina (дедовщи́на) exists, meaning roughly 'grandfather' or the slang term 'gramps' (referring to the senior corps of soldiers in their final year ofconscription).
One way of initiating a new member into astreet gang is for multiple other members of the gang toassault the new member with a beating.[10]
Hazing activities can involve ridicule and humiliation within the group or in public, while other hazing incidents are akin to pranks. Asnipe hunt is such a prank when a newcomer or credulous person is given an impossible task. Examples of snipe hunts include being sent to find a tin of Tartan paint or a "dough repair kit" in a bakery.[11] While in the early 1900s, rookies in the Canadian military were ordered to obtain a "brass magnet" whenbrass is notmagnetic.[12]
Spanking is done mainly in the form ofpaddling among fraternities, sororities, and similar clubs. This practice is also used in the military.[13]
The hazee may be humiliated by being hosed or by sprinklers or buckets, covered with dirt or with (sometimes rotten) food, or even urinated upon.[14] Olive orbaby oil may be used to "show off" the bare skin, for wrestling, or just for slipperiness (e.g., to complicate pole climbing). Cleaning may be limited to a dive into the water, hosing down, or even paddling the worst off. They may have to do tedious cleaning, including swabbing the decks or cleaning the toilets with a toothbrush. In fraternities, pledges often must clean up a mess intentionally made by brothers, including fecal matter, urine, and dead animals.[15]
Servitude such as waiting on others (as at fraternity parties) or other forms of housework may be involved, often with obedience tests. Sometimes, the hazee may be made to eat raw eggs, peppers, hot sauce, or drink too much alcohol.[16] Some hazings include eating or drinking things such as bugs or rotting food.[13][16]
The hazee may have to wear an imposed piece of clothing, outfit, item, or something else worn by the victim in a way that would bring negative attention to the wearer.[16] Examples include a uniform (e.g.,toga), a leash or collar (also associated withbondage), infantile and other humiliating dress and attire.[17][18]
Markings may also be made on clothing or bare skin. They are painted, written, tattooed, or shaved on, sometimes collectively forming a message (one letter, syllable, or word on each pledge) or may receivetarring and feathering (or rather a mock version using some glue) orbranding.[19][20]
Submission to senior members of the group is common. Abject "etiquette" required of pledges or subordinates may include prostration, kneeling, literal groveling, and kissing body parts.[21]
Other physical feats may be required, such ascalisthenics and other physical tests, such asmud wrestling, forming ahuman pyramid, or climbing agreased pole.[22][14][16] Exposure to the elements may be required, such as swimming or diving in cold water or snow.[14] Apledge auction is a variation on theslave auction, where people bid on the paraded pledges.[23][24] Orientation tests may be held, such as abandoning pledges without transport.[16] Dares include jumping from some height, stealing items, and obedience.[16][25]
Blood pinning among military aviators (and many other elite groups) to celebrate becoming new pilots is done by piercing their chests with the sharp pins of aviator wings.[26] On a pilot'sfirst solo flight, they are often drenched with water and have the back of their shirt cut off to celebrate the achievement. Cutting off the back of the shirt originates from the days of tandem trainers, where the instructor sat behind the students and tugged on the back of their shirts to get their attention; cutting off the back of the shirt symbolizes that the instructor does not need to do that anymore.[27] On their firstcrossing the equator in military and commercial navigation, each "pollywog" is subjected to a series of tests, usually including running or crawling a gauntlet of abuse and various scenes supposedly situated at King Neptune's court.[28]
Hazing also occurs for apprentices in some trades, often involving beatings, shaving the heads, physical and sexual assault, or smearing the genitals with grease or wax.[29]
One theory proposed to explain hazing behaviors is that it increases solidarity among a group's inductees, between the inductees and existing members, or between new members and the group.[30]: 409
Attempts at replicating hazing in laboratory studies have yielded inconclusive results concerning group solidarity.[30]: 410 [31] A 1959 study by Aronson and Mills found that students made to read embarrassing material to join a discussion group reported liking the group more.[32] On the other hand, a 1991 experiment by Hautaluoma et al. found that severe initiations could sometimes lead to lower liking for a group.[33] Laboratory-based recreations of hazing may be limited in informativeness because they are only able to impose brief unpleasant experiences whose severity is limited byethical restrictions on laboratory research. Real-world hazing may last months, may be far more severe, and may involve a confluence of different feelings, in contrast to the relatively simple distress induced in laboratory experiments.[31][34]: 137 Researcher Aldo Cimino also points out that laboratory groups are "ephemeral", whereas real-world organizations that engage in hazing are "serious and enduring coalitions".[30]: 410
Surveys and studies examining real-world hazing have also yielded inconclusive results about its impacts on group solidarity.[30]: 410
A 2022 study of new members of an American social fraternity that engaged in hazing found that hazing was "not substantially related to feelings of solidarity".[30]: 414
A 2016 survey of members of sororities and fraternities in theNetherlands found that mentally severe, but not physically severe, initiation rituals were linked to lower affiliation with fellow inductees and that the humiliation experienced by inductees explained this relationship.[35]: 86–87
A 2007 survey of student-athletes conducted by Van Raalteet al. found that hazing was associated with lower task cohesion and had no apparent relation to social cohesion; by contrast, appropriateteam building activities had a positive impact on social cohesion but had little impact on task cohesion.[36] The study, which included activities like "tattooing" and "engaging in or simulating sex acts" as "acceptable team building" activities because respondents categorized them as appropriate,[36] has been criticized for using an improper definition for hazing.[37]: 142–143
Citing the 1959 study by Aronson and Mills,[32] PsychologistRobert Cialdini uses the framework of consistency and commitment to explain the phenomenon of hazing and the vigor and zeal to which practitioners of hazing persist in and defend these activities even when they are made illegal.[38] The 1959 study shaped the development ofcognitive dissonance theory byLeon Festinger.[39]
Many people view hazing as an effective way to teach respect and develop discipline and loyalty within the group and believe that hazing is a necessary component of initiation rites.[40] Hazing can be used as a way to engender conformity within a social group, something that can be seen in many sociological studies.[citation needed][41] Moreover, initiationrituals when managed effectively can serve to build team cohesion and improve team performance,[42] while negative and detrimental forms of hazing alienate and disparage individuals.[43]
Dissonance can produce feelings of groupattraction orsocial identity among initiates after the hazing experience because they want to justify the effort used.Rewards during initiations or hazing rituals matter in that initiates who feel more rewarded express a stronger group identity.[44] As well as increasing group attraction, hazing can produceconformity among new members.[45] Hazing could also increase feelings ofaffiliation because of the stressful nature of the hazing experience.[46] Also, hazing has a hard time of being extinguished by those who saw it to be potentially dangerous like administration in education or law enforcement.
A 2014 paper byHarvey Whitehouse[47] discusses theories that hazing can cause social cohesion thoughgroup identification andidentity fusion. A 2017 study published inScientific Reports found that groups that share painful or strong negative experiences can cause visceral[vague] bonding and pro-group behavior.[48]
Another theory that seeks to explain hazing is that hazing activities allow senior members to exercise dominance and establish power over newer members.[49]: 245
Anthropologist Aldo Cimino notes that some elements of hazing are not entirely consistent with the theory that it is a pure display of dominance.[49]: 252 Hazing occurs in a "ceremonial or ritualistic" context that creates a distinction between hazing activities and everyday life, which is inconsistent with a desire to set up a lasting dominance hierarchy.[49]: 250 Newcomers also gain a far more egalitarian standing after hazing ends, showing that the dynamics that occur during hazing are "profoundly exaggerated relative to the actual social hierarchy".[49]: 251
The theory of hazing as a selection mechanism posits that hazing seeks to eliminate prospective members who are not sufficiently committed to a group or who would otherwise be free riders.[49]
Anthropologist Aldo Cimino notes that hazing ordeals can sometimes provide information about how a prospective member values a group by demonstrating the costs they are willing to endure.[49]: 248 Cimino also notes, however, those common elements of hazing, such as disorientation and intimidation, may cause people to endure hazing rituals regardless of how much they value a group,[49]: 248 and that hazing occurs even in situations in which less committed inductees are not free to leave, suggesting that selection may not fully explain hazing activities.[49]: 249–250
Aldo Cimino proposes that hazing is anevolutionarily-acquired behavior that specifically seeks to protect groups from the exploitation of "automatic benefits"—benefits that are automatically gained by being a member of the group—by newcomers.[49]: 252
In the United States, universities and hazing-prevention organizations have published messages directed at students that seek to deter students from engaging in hazing activities. This includes messaging focused on the potential harms of hazing, the ineffectiveness of hazing for group bonding, andsocial norms statistics that show large majorities in opposition to hazing.[50]
Hazing researcher Aldo Cimino has noted that the anti-hazing messaging released by institutions is sometimes inaccurate and that the ambiguous state of current research on hazing makes it difficult to accurately make strong claims about the effects of hazing activities of differing severities.[50]: 297
In June 27, 2012 in theChina Fire Services [zh]Wuhai Fire Department'sWuda District 2nd Company, 8 older firefighters continuously beat and verbally abused 5 new firefighters as part of a hazing ritual. The footage was leaked ontoWeibo on December 9, 2013, sparking public outrage.[4][51] Since the China Fire Services was part of theMinistry of Public Security Active Service Forces, it is often considered a military hazing incident.
According to one of the largest US National Surveys regarding hazing including over 60,000 student-athletes from 2,400 colleges and universities:[52]
Over 325,000 athletes at more than 1,000 National Collegiate Athletic Association schools in the US participated in intercollegiate sports during 1998–99. Of these athletes:
- More than a quarter of a million experienced some form of hazing to join a college athletic team.
- One in five was subjected to unacceptable and potentially illegal hazing. They were kidnapped, beaten, tied up, and abandoned. They were also forced to commit crimes – destroying property, making prank phone calls, or harassing others.
- Half were required to participate in drinking contests or alcohol-related hazing.
- Two in five consumed alcohol on recruitment visits, even before enrolling.
- Two-thirds were subjected to humiliating hazing, such as being yelled at or sworn at, forced to wear embarrassing clothing (if any clothing at all), or forced to deprive themselves of sleep, food, or personal hygiene.
- One in five participated exclusively in positive initiations, such as team trips or ropes courses.
The survey found that 79% of college athletes experienced some form of hazing to join their team, yet 60% of the student-athlete respondents indicated that they would not report hazing incidents.[52]
A 2007 survey at American colleges found that 55% of students in "clubs, teams, and organizations" experienced behavior the survey defined as hazing, including in varsity athletics andGreek-letter organizations. This survey found that 47% of respondents experienced hazing before college; in 25% of hazing cases, school staff were aware of the activity. 90% of students who experienced behavior the researchers defined as hazing did not consider themselves to have been hazed, and 95% of those who experienced what they defined as hazing did not report it. The most common hazing-related activities reported in student groups included alcohol consumption, humiliation, isolation, sleep deprivation, and sex acts.[53]
Police forces, especially those with aparamilitary tradition or sub-units of police forces such as tactical teams, may also have hazing rituals. Rescue services, such aslifeguards[54][55] or air-sea rescue teams may have hazing rituals.[citation needed]
In Belgium, hazing rituals are a common practice in student clubs (fraternities and sororities, calledstudentenclubs in Dutch andcercles étudiants in French) and student societies (calledstudentenverenigingen,studentenkringen orfaculteitskringen in Dutch andassociations étudiantes orassociations facultaires in French). The latter are typically attached to the faculty of the university. In contrast, the first ones are privately operated by hazing committees (Dutch:doopcommissies, French:comités de baptême), which are usually led by older students who have previously been hazed themselves. Hazing rituals in student societies have generally been safer than those in student clubs, precisely because they are to some extent regulated by universities.[citation needed]
For example,KU Leuven drew up a hazingcharter in 2013 following ananimal cruelty incident in the hazing ritual of student clubReuzegom. The charter was to be signed by student societies, fraternities, and sororities. Signing the charter would have been a pledge to notify the city of the place and time of the hazing ceremony and to abstain from violence, racism, extortion, bullying, sexual assault, discrimination, and the use of vertebrate animals. Reuzegom, as well as the other fraternities and sororities of the Antwerp Guild, refused. In 2018, twenty-year-old student Sanda Dia died from multiple organ failure in the Reuzegom hazing ritual as a result of abuse by fellow Reuzegom members. The killing of a black student in a mostly-white fraternity, some of whose members are alleged to have engaged in racist behaviour, led to controversy.[56][57] As of 2019, a few sororities have signed the charter, as well as all student societies. In April 2019, the 28 remaining fraternities in Leuven signed the charter.[58]
In the Netherlands, the 'traditional fraternities' have an introduction time, including hazing rituals.[59] The pledges go to a camp for a few days, during which they undergo hazing rituals. Meanwhile, they are introduced to the traditions of the fraternity. After camp, there are usually evenings or whole days when the pledges must be present at the fraternity. However, the pressure is released slowly, and the relations become somewhat more equal. Often, pledges collect or perform chores to raise funds for charity. At the end of the hazing period, the new members' inauguration occurs. Hazing ritual often include alcohol abuse, mental and physical abuse, and violence.[59][60] Incidents have occurred, resulting in injuries and death.[61]
In 1965, a student atUtrecht University choked to death during a hazing ritual (Roetkapaffaire). There was public outrage when the perpetrators were convicted to light conditional sentences while left-wingProvo demonstrators were given unconditional prison sentences for order disturbances. The fact that the magistrates handling the case were all alumni of the same fraternity gave rise to accusations of nepotism and class justice. Two incidents in 1997, leading to one heavy injury and one death, led to sharpened scrutiny over hazing. Hazing incidents have nevertheless occurred since, but justice is becoming keener in persecuting perpetrators.
The Netherlands has no anti-hazing legislation. Hazing incidents can be handled by internal resolution by the fraternity itself (in the lightest cases) or via the criminal justice system asassault or, in case of death,negligent homicide ormanslaughter.[61] Universities generally support student unions (financially and by granting board members a discount on the required number of ECTS credits).[61] Still, in the most extreme case, they can suspend or withdraw recognition and support for such unions.
There is a long history of fraternity and school hazing in the Philippines.[62] The first recorded death due to hazing in the Philippines was recorded in 1954, with the death of Gonzalo Mariano Albert. Hazing was regulated under theAnti-Hazing Act of 1995 after the death of Leonardo Villa in 1991.[62] Still, many cases, usually causing severe injury or death, continued even after it was enacted, the including the death ofDarwin Dormitorio, a 20-year-old Cadet 4th Class from thePhilippine Military Academy. In 2018, the Philippines updated its Anti-Hazing Act to include all forms of hazing with organizations both in and outside of schools, including businesses and the military.[62]
Hazing incidents are relatively rare in theRepublic of Ireland but are known at certain elite educational institutions.
AtTrinity College Dublin, an all-male society, Knights of the Campanile, was implicated in a hazing incident in 2019, where initiates were taunted, jeered at, told to get in a shower, insulted each other, and required to eat large amounts ofbutter.[63][64][65] Campus newspaperThe University Times was criticised for using secret recording devices to record the event.[66][67]Dublin University Boat Club is also known for hazing, with rituals including consumption ofalcohol, stripping to one's underwear, caning withbamboo rods, push-ups, being shouted at, standing in the rain, being tied together by shoelaces and crawling a maze while being hit with pillows.[68][69] Hazing is common at Trinity sports societies and teams.Zeta Psi fraternity has a presence at Trinity as well, and some hazing has been reported.[70]
Hazing also took place atDublin City University's Accounting & Finance Society in 2018, where first-years standing for committee positions had to complete a variety of sexualized games. The club was suspended for a year as a result.[71][72]
A report onGaelic games county players noted that 6% of players reported were aware of forced binge drinking as a form of hazing.[73]
Ragging is similar to hazing in educational institutions in theIndian subcontinent. The word is mainly used inIndia,Pakistan,Bangladesh andSri Lanka. Ragging involves existing students baiting orbullying new students. It often takes a malignant form wherein the newcomers may be subjected topsychological orphysical torture.[74] In 2009, theUniversity Grants Commission of India imposed regulations upon Indian universities to help curb ragging. It launched atoll-free 'anti-ragging helpline'.[75] The effectiveness of these measures are unknown; many accused of ragging first-year students are either let out with a warning or saved from legal action by political orcaste lobbyists.
Although ragging is a criminal offense in Sri Lanka under the Prohibition of Ragging and Other Forms of Violence in Educational Institutions Act, No. 20 of 1998, and carries a severe punishment,[76] several variations of ragging can be observed in universities around the country. Through the years, this practice has worsened all types of violence, including sexual violence and harassment, and has also claimed the lives of several students.[77] The university grants commission of Sri Lanka, have set up several pathways to report ragging incidents, including a special office, helpline and a mobile app where students can make a complaint anonymously or seek help.[78][79]
Because of its long-term acceptance and secretive nature of the ritual abuse among social groups the practice of hazing is not clearly understood. In military circles, hazing is sometimes assumed to test recruits under situations of stress and hostility. According to opponents, the problem with this approach is that the stress and hostility come frominside the group and not fromoutside as in actual combat situations, creating suspicion and distrust towards the superiors and comrades-in-arms. Willing participants may be motivated by a desire to prove to senior soldiers their stability in future combat situations, making the unit more secure. Still, blatantly brutal hazing can produce negative results, making the units more prone to break, desert, or mutiny than those without hazing traditions, as observed in the Russian army inChechnya, where units with the strongest traditions ofdedovshchina were the first to break and desert under enemy fire.[80] At worst, hazing may lead intofragging incidents. Colleges and universities sometimes avoid publicizing hazing incidents for fear of damaging institutional reputations or incurring financial liability to victims.[81]
In a 1999 study, a survey of 3,293 collegiate athletes, coaches, athletic directors, and deans found a variety of approaches to prevent hazing, including strong disciplinary and corrective measures for known cases, implementation of athletic, behavioral, and academic standards guiding recruitment; provisions for alternative bonding and recognition events for teams to prevent hazing; and law enforcement involvement in monitoring, investigating, and prosecuting hazing incidents.[52] Hoover's research suggested half of all college athletes are involved in alcohol-related hazing incidents, while one in five is involved in potentially illegal hazing incidents. Only another one in five was involved in what Hoover described as positive initiation events, such as taking team trips or running obstacle courses.
Hoover wrote: "Athletes most at risk for any kind of hazing for college sports were men; non-Greek members; and either swimmers, divers, soccer players, or lacrosse players. The campuses where hazing was most likely to occur were primarily in eastern or southern states with no anti-hazing laws. The campuses were rural, residential, and had Greek systems."[52] (Hoover uses the term "Greek" to refer to U.S.-style fraternities and sororities.) Hoover found that non-fraternity members were most at risk of hazing and that football players were most at risk of potentially dangerous or illegal hazing.[52] In the May issue of theAmerican Journal of Emergency Medicine, Michelle Finkel reported that hazing injuries are often not recognized for their actual cause in emergency medical centers. The doctor said hazing victims sometimes hide the real cause of injuries out of shame or to protect those who caused the harm. In protecting their abusers, hazing victims can be compared with victims of domestic violence, Finkel wrote.[82]
Finkel cites hazing incidents including "beating or kicking to the point oftraumatic injury or death, burning orbranding, excessivecalisthenics, being forced to eat unpleasant substances and psychological or sexual abuse of both males and females". Reported coerced sexual activity is sometimes considered "horseplay" rather than rape, she wrote.[82] Finkel quoted from Hank Nuwer's bookWrongs of Passage, which counted 56 hazing deaths between 1970 and 1999.[83]
In November 2005, controversy arose over a video showingRoyal Marines fighting naked and intoxicated as part of a hazing ritual. The fight culminated with one soldier receiving a kick to the face, rendering him unconscious.[84] The victim, according to theBBC, said "It's just Marine humour".[85] The Marine who leaked the video said "The guy laid out was inches from being dead."
In 2008, Dr. Elizabeth Allan and Dr. Mary Madden from the University of Maine conducted a national hazing study. This investigation is the most comprehensive study of hazing to date. It includes responses from more than 11,000 undergraduate students at 53 colleges and universities in different regions of the United States and interviews with more than 300 students and staff at 18 of these campuses. Through the vision and efforts of many, this study fills a significant gap in the research and extends the breadth and depth of knowledge and understanding about hazing. Ten initial findings are described in the report, "Hazing in View: College Students at Risk". These include:
These examples are limited to incidents in the USA which did not lead to death.
The practice of hazing at West Point entered the national spotlight following his death. Congressional hearings investigated his death and the pattern of systemic hazing of first-year students, and serious efforts were made to reform the system and end hazing at West Point.[102][103][104]
Section 1.3(j) Anti-Ragging Cell
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The dictionary definition ofhazing at Wiktionary
Media related toHazing at Wikimedia Commons