*H₂éwsōs is believed to have been one of the most important deities worshipped byProto-Indo-European speakers due to the consistency of her characterization in subsequent traditions.[2][3] Her attributes were subsequently expanded and adopted into female deities found in later mythologies, includingsolar goddesses.
A commonepithet associated with*H₂éwsōs is*Diwós Dʰuǵh₂tḗr, meaning "Daughter of*Dyēus," the Proto-Indo-Europeansky god.[15]Cognates stemming from the formulaic expression appear in multiple mythological traditions.Ushas was named as the "Daughter ofHeaven" in theRigveda; Eos was associated with the title "Daughter ofZeus" Pre-Homeric Greece; "Daughter ofDievas" was ascribed to aLithuanian sun goddess; and theAlbanian goddessPrende was regarded as the daughter of the sky godZojz.[16][17][18]
Vedic:Uṣás (उषस्), dawn goddess, and the most addressed goddess in theRigveda, with twenty-one hymns.[6][20]
Avestan: Ušå, honoured in one passage of theAvesta(Gāh 5. 5),[6] and Ušahina, the angel separating midnight from the moment when the stars can become visible.[21]
Ancient Greek literature: fragments of works of poetPanyassis of Halicarnassus mention epithetsEoies ("He of the Dawn") andAoos ('man of the dawn') in reference toAdonis, as a possible indicator of his Eastern origin;[25][26][27] the nameAoos also appears as a son of Eos.[28]
Mycenaean: the worda-wo-i-jo (Āw(ʰ)oʰios;Ἀϝohιος)[b][30] is attested in a tablet fromPylos; interpreted as a shepherd's personal name related to "dawn",[31][32][33][34] ordativeĀwōiōi;[35]
Italic:*Ausōs >*Ausōs-ā (with ana-stem extension likely explained by the feminine gender)[36]
Lithuanian:Aušrinė, personification of themorning star, said to begin each day by lighting a fire for the sun;[20]Aušra (sometimesAuska), goddess of sunrise,[11] given as the answer to a Baltic riddle about a maiden who loses her keys;[55] andAuštra (interpreted as "dawn" or "northeast wind"), a character in a fable that guards the entry to paradise.[12]
Latvian:Auseklis (ausa "dawn" attached to the derivative suffix-eklis),[56] personification of the morning star, and a reluctant goddess of the dawn;[20] female personal names includeAusma andAustra;[57][58] wordsausma andausmiņa denoting "Morgendämmerung" ('dawn, daybreak');[59]
Polish: Jutrzenka or Justrzenka;[62][60]Czech: Jitřenka,[63] name and personification of the morning and evening star.
Polabians: Jutrobog (Latin: Jutry Bog or Jutrny Boh), literally "Morning God", a deity mentioned by German historians in the 18th century, andJüterbog: a town in east Germany named after the Slavic god.[64]
Kashubians: Described as worshipping the god Jastrzebog and the goddess Jastra atJastarnia, from which the Kashubian term for Easter,Jastrë, was derived. Their names may be related to the Polabian god Jutrobog, influenced by the Proto-Germanic deity*Austrōn, or derive from the wordjasny ('bright').[65]
Germanic:*Austrōn, goddess of the springtime celebrated during a yearly festival, at the origin of the word 'Easter' in some West Germanic languages,[53]
Romano-Germanic:matronae Austriahenae, a name present in votive inscriptions found in 1958 in Germany.[66]
The attributes of the dawn goddess*H₂éwsōs are reconstructed using the common traits found in laterIndo-European dawn goddesses, including those fromGreek,Hindu,Slavic, andBaltic mythologies. One of the most common characteristics of the goddess was her radiance and brilliance, as she is almost always described as a "bringer of light".[70] Various cognates associated with the goddess derive from the Proto-Indo-European root*bʰeh₂-, meaning "to glow", or "shine."[70] More specifically,*H₂éwsōs was ascribed with the attribute "wide-shining" or "far-shining"— a trait possibly attested in the GreektheonymEuryphaessa ("wide-shining") and theSanskrit poetic expressionurviyắ ví bhāti ("[Ushas] shines out widely").[71][72] She was also closely associated with the colors of the dawn:gold,saffron, red, andcrimson, and is frequently described as dancing.
Other traits attributed to*H₂éwsōs include her residence and vehicle. She is usually depicted dwelling on an island in the ocean or generally living in the east.[73] The goddess is often described as driving some sort of vehicle pulled by horses, which later cultures typically adapted as achariot. However,*H₂éwsōs likely drove a wagon or similar carrier, as chariot technology first appeared in theSintashta culture (2100–1800 BC), and is generally associated with theIndo-Iranian peoples.[74][75] In myth, the goddess uses her vehicle to bring the dawn or new day; she was also frequently depicted as refusing to bring the dawn, an act for which she is punished.[76][77] Similarly,*H₂éwsōs is often depicted as the opener of the doors or gates of heaven for her father, the sky god *Dyēus.
The spread hand as the image of the sun's rays in the morning may also be of Proto-Indo-European origin.[71] The Homeric expressions 'rose-armed' (ῥοδόπηχυς) and 'rosy-fingered Dawn' (ῥοδοδάκτυλος Ἠώς), as well asBacchylides' formula 'gold-armed' (χρυσοπαχύς), can be semantically compared with theVedic formulas 'golden-handed' (híraṇyapāṇi) and 'broad-handed' (pṛthúpāṇi-).[71] According toMartin L. West, "the 'rose' part is probably a Greek refinement."[71]
InGreek mythology,Eos was the goddess andpersonification of the dawn. She is described as living "beyond the streams of Oceanus at the ends of the earth".[78] A more precise location of her home is given inHomer'sOdyssey, whereOdysseus claims Eos lives at the mythical island ofAeaea, claiming it houses "the dwelling of early Dawn and her dancing-lawns (χοροί), and the risings of the sun".[79] In theHymn to Aphrodite, the home was described as having 'shining doors' (θύρας ... φαεινάς), behind which Eos locked her loverTithonus.[78] Homer also depicts Eos herself, wearing saffron-colored robes (κροκόπεπλος)[80] and riding in a chariot pulled by a pair of horses named Lampos and Phaethon. Similarly, the Greeklyric poetBacchylides calls her "white-horsed Dawn" (λεύκιππος Ἀώς).[81] The color and number of the horses varies between authors, with common colors being white and red.
Aterracotta lekanis dish (c. 4th century BCE) depictingEos driving a chariot pulled by four white horses.
In theIliad,ἠριγένεια ("early-born", "born in the morning") is given as anepithet of Eos. In theOrphic Hymns, she is calledφαινόλις ("light-bringing"),[70]φαεσίμβροτος ("shining on mortals"),[82] andλαμπρο-φαής ("bright-shining"),[83][84] In Homeric formulas, she was also referred to as "gold-throned" (χρυσόθρονος).[85]
A possible mythological descendant of*H₂éwsōs may beAphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and lust. Scholars posit similarities based on her connection with a sky deity as her father—Zeus orUranus— and her association with the colours red and gold. In theIliad, Aphrodite is hurt by a mortal and seeks solace in her motherDione's bosom. Dione is seen as a female counterpart to Zeus, and is thought to etymologically derive from the Proto-Indo-European root*Dyeus.[86][87]
Aurora was the goddess of the dawn inRoman mythology, and the equivalent of the Greek Eos. Similar imagery is utilized when describing both goddesses, likely due to theHellenization of Roman culture.[88] InOvid'sMetamorphoses,Aurora opens the red doors (purpureas fores) to fill her rosy halls,[89] and inNonnus'Dionysiaca the goddess shakes off her sleep and leavesCephalus in order to "open the gates of sunrise" (ἀντολίηςὤιξεθύραςπολεμητόκοςἨώς).[90]Ovid associates her with the colours yellow, red, and purple, and describes her asflāua ("the golden-yellow one") in hisAmores.[91][d] Similarly to Eos, Aurora drives abiga or a rosy-redquadriga inVirgil'sAeneid.[104]
Ushas is theRigvedic andVedic goddess of the dawn inHinduism. In the ancientRigveda, she is described as the daughter of the sky godDyáuṣ, born from the harnessing of theAśvins.[70] She is described asbhānty Usásah ("the Dawn's shine"); the dawn ishíraṇya-varṇā ("gold-coloured"); and she throws on embroidered garmentsnṛtūr iva ("like a dancer"). She wears crimson garments and a gleaming gold veil.[105][106] In theSamaveda, she is described as "red, like mare"; she shots "ruddy beams of light", "yokes red steeds to her car"," and "harnesses the red cows."[107][81] Her horses are said to be pale red, ruddy, yellowish, or reddish-yellow in the Vedic tradition.[108]
TheAvesta refers to a mythical eastern mountain calledUšidam ("Dawn-house").[109] TheYasnas also mention a mountain namedUšidarɘna, possibly meaning "crack of dawn" (as a noun)[110] or "having reddish cracks" (as an adjective).[111]
InLatvian andLithuanian mythology,Saulė is thegoddess of the sun. InBaltic folklore, Saulė is said to live in a silver-gated castle at the end of the sea,[112] located somewhere in the east,[11] or to go to an island in the middle of the sea for her nocturnal rest.[113] In folksongs, Saulė sinks into the bottom of a lake in a silver cradle to sleep "in the white seafoam".[114][e][f]
In theLithuanian tradition, the sun is portrayed as a "golden wheel" or a "golden circle" that rolls down the mountain at sunset.[117] Saulé is also described as being dressed in clothes woven with "threads of red, gold, silver and white".[118][g] InLatvian folk songs, Saulė and her daughter(s) are dressed of shawls woven with gold thread, and Saulė wears shoes of gold, which parallels the Greek poetSappho describing Eos asχρυσοπέδιλλος ("golden-sandalled").[85] The goddess is portrayed as dancing in her gilded shoes on a silver hill, and her fellow Baltic goddessAušrinė is said to dance on a stone for the people on the first day of summer.[122][80] Saulė is sometimes portrayed as waking up 'red' (sārta) or 'in a red tree' during the morning.[123] Her association with red may represent the "fiery aspect" of the sun: the setting and the rising sun are equated with a rose wreath and a rose in bloom, due to their circular shapes.[124][125][126][h][i]
Saulė drives a carriage with copper-wheels,[129] a "gleaming copper chariot",[130] or a golden chariot[131] pulled by untiring horses. Alternately, she has been described as driving akamaņiņa ("sleigh") made of fish bones.[132][133] In Baltic myth, the goddess is portrayed driving her shining car on the way to her husband, the Moon.[134] In other accounts, she is said to sail the World Sea on a silver[135] or golden boat,[130] which, according to legend, is what her chariot transforms into for her night travels.[11][136] In a Latvian folk song, Saulė hangs her sparkling crown on a tree in the evening and enters a golden boat to sail away.[121]
The goddess' horses are commonly said to be white in colour;[11] in other accounts they are described as three horses with golden, silver and diamond coats.[134] In Latviandainas (folk songs), her horses are described as having hooves and bridles of gold, and coats that are yellow, golden, or bay in colour: "reflect[ing] the hues of the bright sky".[136][137] When she begins her nocturnal journey through the World Sea, her chariot changes into a boat and "the Sun swims her horses".[138][139]
InAlbanian folk beliefs,Prende is the goddess of the dawn whose name traces back to the PIE*pers-é-bʰ(h₂)n̥t-ih₂ ("he who brings the light through"), from which theAncient GreekΠερσεφόνη (Persephone), is considered to have descended from.[17][140] Prende is also calledAfër-dita— an Albanian phrase meaning "near day" or "dawn".[141][142][143]Afërdita also serves as the native name for the planetVenus.[144][145][146] The Albanianimperative formafro dita 'come forth the dawn' traces back toProto-Albanianapro dītā 'come forth brightness of the day/dawn', from PIE*h₂epero déh₂itis.[147] According to linguistVáclav Blažek, theAlbanian word(h)yll ("star") finds a probable ultimate etymology in the root*h₂ews- ("dawn"), specifically through*h₂ws-li ("morning-star'), which implies the quite natural semantic evolution 'dawn' > 'morning star' > 'star'.[148]
In Albanian mythology, Prende is pulled across the sky in her chariot by swallows, calledPulat e Zojës ("the Lady's Birds"), which are connected to the chariot by the rainbow (Ylberi), which is also known asBrezi orShoka e Zojës ("the Lady's Belt").[141]
In Lithuanian mythology,Aušrinė is the goddess of themorning star (Venus) who prepares the way for Saulė each morning. In one myth, a man named Joseph becomes fascinated with Aušrinė, and goes on a quest to find the 'second sun', who is actually a maiden that lives on an island in the sea and has the same hair as the Sun.[122]
According to Russian folkloristAlexander Afanasyev, the figure of the Dawn in Slavic tradition is varied: she is described in aSerbian folksong as a maiden sitting on a silver throne in the water, her legs of a yellow color and her arms of gold.[149] In aCroatian fairy tale, theZora-djevojka ("Dawn-maiden") "sails the sea in the early morning in her boat of gold with a silver paddle" (alternatively, a silver boat with golden oars)[150] and sails back toBuyan, the mysterious island where she dwells.[151]
InSlavic paganism,Zorya is thepersonification and guardian deity of the dawn. She is also depicted as a beautiful golden-haired woman who lives in a golden kingdom "at the edge of the White World", and rows through the seas with her silver boat and golden oar (alternatively, a golden boat and silver oar).[150] The home of Zorya is commonly believed to be on the island ofBuyan, where her brother, the Sun, dwelt along with his attendants: the North, West and East winds.[152] Although Zorya is not described driving a chariot or wagon pulled by horses, she is still described in a tale as preparing the "fiery horses" of the Sun at the beginning and end of the day.[153] Some versions of her myth split the functions of the goddess into two versions or sisters:Zorya Utrennyaya, the goddess of the dawn, andZorya Vechernyaya, the goddess of thedusk.[154][155]
In a Russian saying, Zorya is invoked as akrasnaya dyevitsa (красная девица "red maiden"),[156] and in another story, Zorya sits on a golden chair and holds a silver disk or mirror (identified as the sun).[157] In other stories, a maiden sits on the white-hot stoneAlatyr in Buyan, weaving red silk. More specifically, the maiden is described as the "rose-fingered" Zorya, who, with her golden needle, weaves a veil over the sky in rosy and "blood-red" colours using a thread of "yellow ore".[158][j][k]
A character namedGwawrdur is mentioned in theMabinogion tale ofCulhwch and Olwen. Stefan Zimmer suggests either a remnant of the Dawn goddess or a name meaning "(with) the color of steel", sincegwawr may also mean 'color, hue, shade'.[167] The name also appears in theCanu Aneirin under the variantsGwardur,Guaurud,Guaurdur,(G)waredur, or(G)waledur.[168] All of these stem from theMiddle Welshgwawr ('dawn'; also 'hero, prince'). According to linguistRanko Matasović, the latter derives fromProto-Celtic*warī- ('sunrise, east',cf.Middle Irishfáir), itself from the PIE root*wōsr- ('spring').[169]
Scholars have argued that the Roman nameAurēlius (originallyAusēlius, from Sabine*ausēla 'sun') and theEtruscan sun godUsil (probably ofOsco-Umbrian origin) may be related to the Indo-European word for the dawn.[148][36][170] A figure in Belarusian tradition named Аўсень (Ausenis) and related to the coming of spring is speculated to be cognate to*Haeusos.[171]
An expression of formulaic poetry can be found in the Proto-Indo-European expression*h₂(e)ws-sḱeti ('it dawns'), attested inLithuanianaušta andaũšti,[172]Latvianàust,Avestanusaitī, orSanskritucchāti.[8][173][l] The poetic formula 'the lighting dawn' is also attested in theIndo-Iranian tradition: Sanskrituchantīm usásam, and Young Avestanusaitīm uṣ̌ā̊ŋhəm.[19] Ahapax legomenonuşád-bhiḥ (instr. pl.) is also attested.[175]
Other remnants of the root*h₂éws- are present in theZoroastrian prayer to the dawnHoshbām,[176] and inUšahin gāh (the dawn watch),[177] sung between midnight and dawn.[178][179] InPersian historical and sacred literature, namely, theBundahishn, in the chapter about thegenealogy of theKayanid dynasty, princess Frānag, in exile with "Frēdōn's Glory" after escaping her father's murderous intentions, promises to give her firstborn son, Kay Apiweh, to "Ōšebām". Ōšebām, in return, saves Franag.[180] In theYasht aboutZam, the Angel of the Munificent Earth, a passage readsupaoṣ̌ā̊ŋhə ('situated in the rosy dawn'), "a hypostatic derivation from unattested*upa uṣ̌āhu 'up in the morning light(s)'".[181]
A specialcarol,zorile ("dawn"), was sung by thecolindători (traditional Romanian singers) during funerals, imploring the Dawns not be in a hurry to break, or begging them to prevent the dead from departing this world.[182][183] The word is ofSlavic origin, with the term for 'dawn' attached to the Romanian article-le.[182]
Stefan Zimmer suggests thatWelsh literary expressionym bronn y dyd ("at the breast/bosom of the day") is an archaic formula possibly referring to the Dawn goddess, who bared her breast.[184]
^Foreign scholars interpret this name as "matinal", "matutino", "mañanero", meaning "of the early morning", "of the dawn".[29]
^According to Adalberto Magnavacca, the termEous refers to the Morning Star (Venus), as it rises in the morning, but could also be used as another poetical term foraurora.[41]
^For further example: in theAeneid, the sea or the waves flush red (rubescebat) asAurora descends from high heavens 'shimmering yellow' (fulgebat lutea) in her 'rosy chariot' (in roseis ... bigis).[92][93] Ovid describes her "purple hand" (purpurea ... manu)[94] and "saffron hair" (croceis Aurora capillis).[95][96] InMetamorphoses, the Dawn is moving on "saffron-wheels",[97][98] and his poemFasti tells of Aurora, "Memnon's saffron mother" (Memnonis ... lutea mater), as arriving on rosy horses (in roseis ... equis),[99] and "with her rosy lamp" (cum roseam ... lampada) she expels the stars of the night. InThe Golden Ass,Apuleius depicts the movement of Aurora as she began to soar through the skies "with her crimson trappings" (poenicantibus phaleris Aurora roseum).[100] Ancient Greek poetNonnus refers to the Dawn as "rose-crowned" ({ῥοδοστεφέος,rhodostephéos) in his poemDionysiaca.[101] InLucretius'sDe Rerum Natura, Book V,Latin deityMater Matuta "spreads the rosy morning" (roseam Matuta ... auroram differt),[102] and the author poetically describes the sunrise, i.e., colours changing from red to gold, at dawn (aurea cum primum ... matutina rubent radiati lumina solis).[103] In anOrphic Hymn(77/78), the goddess Eos is said to be 'blushing red' or 'reddening' (ἐρυθαινομένη).[83]
^According toDaiva Vaitkevičienė, this imagery is also related to the rebirth of souls in Baltic mythology.[115]
^The Otherworld in Latvian mythology is namedViņsaule 'The Other Sun', a place where the sun goes at night and also the abode of the dead.[116]
^Saulė is also said to own golden tools and garments: slippers, scarf, belt and a golden boat she uses as her means of transportation.[119] Other accounts ascribe her golden rings, golden ribbons, golden tassels and even a golden crown.[120] In Latvian folksongs, she is also depicted in a silver, gold or silk costume, and wearing a sparkling crown.[121]
^According to Lithuanian scholar Daiva Vaitkeviciene,Wilhelm Mannhardt's treatise on Latvian solar myths identified other metaphors for the Sun, such as "a golden apple", "a rose bush", and "red berries".[127]
^In some Latvian folksongs, the personified female Sun is also associated with the color "white" (Latvbalt-), such as the imagery of a white shirt, the expression "mila, balte" ("Sun, dear, white"), and the description of the trajectory of the sun (red as it rises, white as it journeys on its way).[128]
^Afanasyev used the word "рудо-желтую" (rudo-zheltuyu). The first part of the word, "рудо", means "ore", and Afanasyev considered it a cognate to similar words in other Indo-European languages:Ancient Greekerythros,Sanskritrudhira,Gothicrauds,Lithuanianraudonas,German(Morgen)rothe.
^Some holdover of a female solar goddess may exist in Slavic tradition: in songs, the sun is portrayed as a maiden or bride, and, in a story, when a young woman named Solntse covers herself with a heavy cloak, it darkens, and when she puts on a shining dress, it brightens again.[159] In addition, inBelarusian folk songs, the Sun is calledSonca and referred to as a 'mother'.[160]
^This reflex may also exist withHittite verbsuhhi,uskizzi andaus-zi 'to see'.[173][174]
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^Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Century. Edited and Translated byMartin L. West. London, England; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 2003. pp. 216-217.ISBN0-674-99605-4
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^Bernabé, Alberto; Luján, Eugenio R.Introducción al Griego Micénico: Gramática, selección de textos y glosario. Monografías de Filología Grega Vol. 30. Zaragoza: Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza. 2020. p. 234.
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