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Hate group

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Collective united by hatred against others
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The examples and perspective in this articledeal primarily with the United States and do not represent aworldwide view of the subject. You mayimprove this article, discuss the issue on thetalk page, orcreate a new article, as appropriate.(October 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Flags commonly used by hate groups include (clockwise from top-left): TheCeltic cross, theNazi flag, theSS flag, and theConfederate battle flag
Part ofa series on
Discrimination
Manifestations
Related topics
Examples of hate group symbols:
  1. the white nationalistCeltic cross
  2. theOdal rune
  3. thewhite power raisedfist
  4. theIron Cross with the Nazi swastika
  5. theSSSig runes
  6. the SSTotenkopf

Ahate group is asocial group that advocates and practiceshatred,hostility, orviolence towards members of arace,ethnicity,nation,religion,gender,gender identity,sexual orientation, or any other designated sector ofsociety. According to the United StatesFederal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), a hate group's "primary purpose is to promote animosity, hostility, and malice against persons belonging to a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity/national origin which differs from that of the members of the organization."[1]

Monitoring

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In theUS, theFBI does not publish a list of hate groups, and it also says that "investigations are only conducted when a threat or advocacy of force is made; when the group has the apparent ability to carry out the proclaimed act; and when the act would constitute a potential violation of federal law". The FBI maintains statistics on hate crimes.[2]

Two private American non-profit organizations that monitor intolerance and hate groups are theAnti-Defamation League (ADL)[3] and theSouthern Poverty Law Center (SPLC).[4] They maintain lists of what they deem to be hate groups, supremacist groups andantisemitic, anti-government or extremist groups that have committedhate crimes. The SPLC's definition of a "hate group" includes any group with beliefs or practices that attack or malign an entire class of people—particularly when the characteristics being maligned are immutable.[5] However, at least for the SPLC, inclusion of a group in the list "does not imply a group advocates or engages in violence or other criminal activity."[6] According toUSA Today, their list ranges from "white supremacists to black nationalists, neo-Nazis to neo-Confederates."[7]

TheCanadian Anti-Hate Network is a nonprofit organization that monitors hate groups inCanada.[8][9][10][11]

Number ofSPLC hate groups per million, as of 2013

According to the SPLC, from 2000 to 2008, hate group activity saw a 50 percent increase in the US, with a total of 926 active groups.[12] In 2019, the organization's report showed a total of 1,020 hate groups, the highest number in 20 years, and a 7% increase from 2017 to 2018. The previous high was 1,018 in 2011, and the recent low point was 2014, when the list included 784 groups. A rise inwhite nationalist groups from 100 in 2017 to 148 in 2018 was the most significant increase in the 2019 report.[7]

Since 2010 the termalt-right, short for "alternative right", has come into usage.[13][14] This broad term includes a range of people who reject mainstreamconservatism in favor of forms of conservatism that may embrace implicit or explicitracism orwhite supremacy. The alt-right is described as being "a weird mix of old-schoolneo-Nazis, conspiracy theorists,anti-globalists, and young right-wing internet trolls—all united in the belief that white male identity is under attack bymulticultural, "politically correct" forces."[15]

Violence and hate crimes

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Further information:Hate crime

Four categories which are associated with hate groups' propensity forviolence are: organizational capacity, organizational constituency, strategic connectivity, and structural arrangement.[16] The larger an extremist group is and the longer it has existed, it is more prone to engage in violence. Regionally, hate groups which are based in theWest and theNortheast are more likely to engage in violence than those hate groups which are based in theSouth. If a group has a charismatic leader, it is more likely to be violent. Groups that share conflict-based relationships with other groups are more likely to engage in extreme violence. The amount of ideological literature which a group publishes is linked to significant decreases in a group's violent behavior, with more literature linked to lower levels of violence.

The California Association for Human Relations Organizations (CAHRO) asserts that hate groups such as theKu Klux Klan (KKK) andWhite Aryan Resistance (WAR) preach violence against racial, religious, sexual and other minorities in the United States.[17] Joseph E. Agne argues that hate-motivated violence is a result of the successes of thecivil rights movement, and he asserts that the KKK has resurfaced and new hate groups have formed.[18] Agne argues that it is a mistake to underestimate the strength of the hate-violence movement, itsapologists and its silent partners.[19]

In the US, crimes that "manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity, including the crimes of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter; forcible rape; robbery; aggravated assault; burglary; larceny-theft; motor vehicle theft; arson; simple assault; intimidation; and destruction, damage or vandalism of property", directed at the government, an individual, a business, or institution, involving hate groups and hate crimes, may be investigated as acts of domestic terrorism.[20][21][22][23]

Hate speech

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Main article:Hate speech

AfterWorld War II andThe Holocaust,Germany found it necessary to criminalizeVolksverhetzung ("incitement to hatred") in order to prevent a resurgence offascism.

Counter-terrorism expertEhud Sprinzak [he] definesverbal violence as "the use of extreme language against an individual or a group that either implies a direct threat that physical force will be used against them, or is seen as an indirect call for others to use it." Sprinzak argues that verbal violence is often a substitute for real violence, and that the verbalization of hate has the potential to incite people who are incapable of distinguishing between real and verbal violence to engage in actual violence.[24]

People tend to judge the offensiveness of hate speech on a gradient depending on how public the speech is and what group it targets.[25] Although people's opinions of hate speech are complex, they typically consider public speech targeting ethnic minorities to be the most offensive.

HistorianDaniel Goldhagen, discussingantisemitic hate groups, argues that we should view verbal violence as "an assault in its own right, having been intended to produce profound damage—emotional, psychological, and social—to the dignity and honor of the Jews. The wounds that people suffer by ... such vituperation ... can be as bad as ... [a] beating."[26]

In the mid-1990s, the popularity of the Internet brought new international exposure to many organizations, including groups with beliefs such aswhite supremacy,neo-Nazism,homophobia,Holocaust denial andIslamophobia. Several white supremacist groups have founded websites dedicated to attacking their perceived enemies. In 1996, theSimon Wiesenthal Center of Los Angeles asked Internet access providers to adopt a code of ethics that would prevent extremists from publishing their ideas online. In 1996, theEuropean Commission formed the Consultative Commission on Racism andXenophobia (CRAX), a pan-European group which was tasked to "investigate and, using legal means, stamp out the current wave of racism on the Internet."[27]

Religious hate groups

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See also:List of organizations designated by the SPLC as anti-LGBT hate groups

TheSouthern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) has designated several Christian groups as hate groups, including theAmerican Family Association, theFamily Research Council,Abiding Truth Ministries,American Vision, theChalcedon Foundation, theDove World Outreach Center, theTraditional Values Coalition and theWestboro Baptist Church. Someconservatives have criticized the SPLC for its inclusion of certainChristian groups, such as the Family Research Council, on its list.[28][29][30][31]

The SPLC classifies theNation of Islam (NOI) as a hate group under theblack separatist category[32][33] and theIsraelite School of Universal Practical Knowledge (ISUPK) as a hate group under theblack supremacist category.[34][35][36] Members of the NOI believe that a black scientist namedYakub created a race ofWhite devils, who are considered the progenitors ofWhite people, on the Greek island ofPatmos.[37][38][39][40] Historically a black-only group, White adherents now form a small part of the NOI membership.[41] Alongside the ISUPK,[42] numerous other sects and organizations within theBlack Hebrew Israelite movement expound extremist,black supremacist,religious antisemitic, andanti-White racist beliefs,[42] as well ashomophobic,transphobic, andsexist beliefs.[42]

TheWhite supremacist religious group which is currently named theCreativity Movement (formerly the World Church of the Creator), led byMatthew F. Hale, is associated with violence andbigotry. TheAryan Nations is another religiously-based White supremacist hate group.[43][44]

TheWestboro Baptist Church is considered a hate group by multiple sources[45] and the WBC is monitored as such by theAnti-Defamation League and theSouthern Poverty Law Center. The church has been involved in actions against gay people since at least 1991, when it sought a crackdown on homosexual activity atGage Park six blocks northwest of the church.[46] In addition to conductinganti-gay protests at military funerals, the organization pickets celebrity funerals and public events.[47] Protests have also been held againstJews andRoman Catholics, and some protests have included WBC membersstomping on the American flag or flying the flag upside down on a flagpole. The church also has made statements such as "thank God for dead soldiers", "God blew up the troops", and "God hates America."[48] The church has faced several accusations ofbrainwashing[49][50][51] and has been criticized as acult[52] because of its provocative stance againsthomosexuality and theUnited States, and it has been condemned by many mainstreamLGBT rights opponents as well as byLGBT rights supporters.[53]

Misogynistic hate groups

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Misogynist hate groups which target women, particularly those groups whose members mostly consist of young men who includepickup artists,incels and hardlineanti-woman groups, are sources of concern to some experts. Using recruitment techniques which are similar to those which are used byfar-right extremist groups, they target teenagers and vulnerable young men, their recruitment tactics include the use of methods which are akin togrooming. UK authorLaura Bates believes that some of these groups should be classified asmisogynist terrorist groups.[54] TheProud Boys, which, according to theSouthern Poverty Law Center is known for itsmisogynistic rhetoric,[55] has been designated as adomestic terrorist group in Canada.[56]

Internet hate groups

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Traditionally, hate groups recruited members and spread extremist messages by word of mouth, or through the distribution offlyers and pamphlets. In contrast, theInternet allows hate group members from all over the world to engage inreal-time conversations.[57] The Internet has been a boon for hate groups in terms of promotion, recruitment and expansion of their base to include younger audiences.[58] An Internet hate group does not have to be part of a traditional faction such as theKu Klux Klan.[59]

While many hate sites are explicitly antagonistic or violent, others may appear patriotic or benign, and this façade may contribute to the appeal of the groups.[60] Hate group websites work towards the following goals: to educate group members and the public, to encourage participation, to claim a divine calling and privilege, and to accuse out-groups (e.g. the government or the media). Groups that work effectively towards these goals via an online presence tend to strengthen their sense of identity, decrease the threat levels from out-groups, and recruit more new members.

TheSimon Wiesenthal Center (SWC), in its 2009iReport, identified more than 10,000 problematic hate and terrorist websites and other Internet postings. The report includes hatewebsites,social networks,blogs,newsgroups,YouTube and other video sites. The findings illustrate that as the Internet continues to grow, extremists find new ways to seek validation of their hateful agendas and recruit members.

Creators of hate pages and groups onFacebook choose their target, set up their page or group, and then recruit members.[61] Anyone can create a Facebook group and invite followers to post comments, add pictures and participate in discussion boards. A Facebook page is similar, with the exception that one must "like" the page in order to become a member. Because of the ease of creating and joining such groups, many so-called hate groups exist only incyberspace.[57]United Patriots Front, an internet-basedAustralianfar-rightanti-immigration andneo-nazi organization formed in 2015[62] has been described as a hate group.[63]

See also:Filter bubble,Echo chamber (media),Deviancy amplification spiral, andTerrorism and social media

Psychology of hate groups

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Hateful intergroup conflict may be motivated by "in-group love," a desire to positively contribute to the group to which one belongs, or "out-group hate," a desire to injure a foreign group.[64] Both individuals and groups are more motivated by "in-group love" than "out-group hate," even though both motivations might advance a group's status. This preference is especially salient when a group is not situated in a competitive position against another. This partiality towards cooperative behavior suggests that intergroup conflict might decline if group members devoted more energy to positive in-group improvements than to out-group competition.[65] Groups formed around a set of moral codes are more likely than non-morality-based groups to exhibit "out-group hate" as a response to their especially strong sense of "in-group love."[66]

Intergroup threat occurs when one group's interests threaten another group's goals and well-being.[67] Intergroup threat theories provide a framework for intergroup biases and aggression.[68]

One type of intergroup threat theory,realistic group conflict theory, addresses competition between groups by positing that when two groups are competing for limited resources, one group's potential success is at odds with the other's interests, which leads to negative out-group attitudes.[69] If groups have the same goal, their interactions will be positive, but opposing goals will worsen intergroup relations. Intergroup conflict may increase in-group unity, leading to a larger disparity and more conflict between groups.

Symbolic threat theory proposes that intergroup bias and conflict result from conflicting ideals, not from perceived competition or opposing goals.[70] Biases based on symbolic threat tend to be stronger predictors of practical behavior towards out-groups than biases based on realistic threat.[71]

Realistic group conflict theory and symbolic threat theory are, in some cases, compatible.Integrated-threat theory recognizes that conflict can arise from a combination of intergroup dynamics and classifies threats into four types: realistic threat, symbolic threat,intergroup anxiety, and negativestereotypes.[67] Intergroup threat theories provide a framework for intergroup biases and aggression.[68] Intergroup anxiety refers to a felt uneasiness around members of other groups, which is predictive of biased attitudes and behaviors.[72] Negative stereotypes are also correlated with these behaviors, causing threat based on negative expectations about an out-group.[73]

According to the 7-stage hate model, a hate group, if unimpeded, passes through seven successive stages.[74][75] In the first four stages, hate groups vocalize their beliefs and in the last three stages, they act on their beliefs. Factors that contribute to a group's likelihood to act include the vulnerability of its members as well as its reliance on symbols and mythologies. This model points to a transition period that exists between verbal violence and acting out that violence, separating hardcore haters from rhetorical haters. Thus,hate speech is seen as a prerequisite ofhate crimes, and as acondition of their possibility.

Hate group intervention is most possible if a group has not yet passed from the speech to the action stage, and interventions on immature hate groups are more effective than those that are firmly established.[75] Intervention and rehabilitation is most effective when the one investigating a hate group can identify and deconstruct personal insecurities of group members, which in turn contribute to the weakness of the group. Perhaps most critical to combating group hate is to prevent the recruitment of new members by supporting those who are most susceptible, especially children and youth, in developing a positive self-esteem and a humanized understanding of out-groups.[76]

Conceptual criticism

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The concept of hate groups has been criticised as being arbitrarily and incoherently defined, as hatred can be promoted against a theoretically unlimited number of groups yet only a select few protected characteristics are included. Choosing to designate specific groups as hate groups but not others thus becomes a rhetorical device to pathologize certain groups as deviant rather than a coherent concept. Hate groups are tracked by groups such as the SPLC and ADL, but the lack of a clear definition means these measures run the risk of simply being the opinion of private organisations.[77][78][79]

See also

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References

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Notes

  1. ^"Hate Crime Data Collection Guidelines",Uniform Crime Reporting: Summary Reporting System: National Incident-Based Reporting System, U.S. Department of Justice: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Criminal Justice Information Services Division, Revised October 1999.
  2. ^"Frequently Asked Questions".Federal Bureau of Investigation. RetrievedMay 30, 2015.
  3. ^"ADL: Fighting Anti-Semitism, Bigotry and Extremism". Retrieved2008-04-13.
  4. ^"SPLCenter.org...forwarding to index.jsp". Archived fromthe original on 2019-07-13. Retrieved2008-04-13.
  5. ^Hate Map – SPLC
  6. ^"Hate Map". Retrieved2010-09-27.
  7. ^abWoodyard, Chris (February 20, 2019)"Hate group count hits 20-year high amid rise in white supremacy, report says"USA Today
  8. ^"Members of the Standing Committee on Public Safety and National Security"(PDF).Parliament of Canada.Archived(PDF) from the original on 2018-08-26. Retrieved2021-08-07.
  9. ^Draaisma, Muriel (2018-05-08)."New anti-hate group aims to monitor 'growing threat' of far-right extremists in Canada".CBC News. Retrieved2021-08-07.
  10. ^Pierce, Matthew (2021-01-12)."Canadian internet sleuths, anti-hate group helping to identify Capitol rioters".CBC News. Retrieved2021-08-07.
  11. ^Kestler-D'Amours, Jillian (2021-09-08)."'What next?': Experts in Canada alarmed by anti-Trudeau protests".Al Jazeera.Archived from the original on 2021-09-08. Retrieved2022-01-04.
  12. ^Katel, Peter (2009-05-08). "Hate Groups". Vol. 19, no. 18.CQ Researcher. pp. 421–48. See "The Year in Hate" Southern Poverty Law Center, February 2009.
  13. ^Lombroso, Daniel &, Applebaum, Yoni (21 November 2016)."'Hail Trump!': White Nationalists Salute the President Elect". The Atlantic. Retrieved17 December 2016.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^Goldstein, Joseph (November 20, 2016)."Alt-Right Exults in Donald Trump's Election With a Salute: 'Heil Victory'".New York Times. RetrievedNovember 21, 2016.
  15. ^Staff (1 October 2016)."The Rise of the alt-right". The Week. Retrieved17 December 2016.
  16. ^Chermak, S.; Freilich, J.; Suttmoeller, M. (2013). "The organizational dynamics of far-right hate groups in the United States: comparing violent to nonviolent organizations".Studies in Conflict and Terrorism.36 (3):193–218.doi:10.1080/1057610X.2013.755912.S2CID 55870656.
  17. ^"Freedom From FearR: Ending California's Hate Violence Epidemic".Cahro.org. CAHRO – California Association of Human Relations Organizations. 1992-01-07. Archived fromthe original on 2013-07-31. Retrieved2013-09-14.
  18. ^"The Church's Response to Hate-Group Violence". Gbgm-umc.org. Archived fromthe original on 2012-02-24. Retrieved2013-09-14.
  19. ^"The Church's Response to Hate-Group Violence". Archived fromthe original on 2012-02-24. Retrieved2004-11-28.
  20. ^The Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program – Data Quality Guidelines for StatisticsAppendix III – A Brief History of the Hate Crime Program
  21. ^Federal Bureau of Investigation – Civil Rights"Federal Bureau of Investigation – Civil Rights – Hate Crime Overview". Archived fromthe original on 2016-03-07. Retrieved2016-07-28.
  22. ^"Hate Crime Statistics, 2006 Hate Crime Overview – The FBI's Role". Archived fromthe original on July 17, 2015.
  23. ^1999 Developing Hate Crime Questions for the National Crime Victim Survey (NCVS) p. 1"Sections & Interest Groups"(PDF). Archived from the original on May 12, 2003. Retrieved2008-01-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  24. ^Sprinzak, Ehud,Brother against Brother: Violence and Extremism in Israeli Politics from Altalena to the Rabin Assassination (New York: The Free Press, 1999)
  25. ^Cowan, G.; Hodge, C. (1996). "Judgments of hate speech: the effects of target group, publicness, and behavioral responses of the target".Journal of Applied Social Psychology.26 (4):355–71.doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb01854.x.
  26. ^Goldhagen, Daniel Jonah,Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans the Holocaust (Knopf, 1996), p. 124.
  27. ^Newsbytes News Network (31 January 1996)
  28. ^Sessions, David (16 August 2014)."Is the Family Research Council Really a Hate Group?".The Daily Beast. Retrieved3 August 2014.
  29. ^Waddington, Lynda (23 November 2010)."Groups that Helped Oust Iowa Judges Earn 'Hate Group' Designation; SPLC Adds American Family Association, Family Research Council to List".Iowa Independent. Retrieved25 November 2010.
  30. ^Thompson, Krissah (24 November 2010)."'Hate group' designation angers same-sex marriage opponents".Washington Post. Retrieved25 November 2010.
  31. ^Sprigg, Peter."The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) and Its So-Called 'Hate Groups'".The Family Research Council. Retrieved6 August 2014.
  32. ^Jessup, Michael "The Sword of Truth in the Sea of Lies: The Theology of Hate", in Priest, Robert J. and Alvaro L. Nieves, eds.,This Side of Heaven (Oxford University Press US, 2006)ISBN 0-19-531056-X, pp. 165–66
  33. ^"SPLC – Active U.S. Hate Groups in 2008: Black Separatist". Archived fromthe original on March 14, 2008.
  34. ^"God and the General. Leader Discusses Black Supremacist Group".Intelligence Report.Montgomery, Alabama:Southern Poverty Law Center. Fall 2008. Archived fromthe original on 2008-09-07. Retrieved31 July 2020.
  35. ^"Racist Black Hebrew Israelites becoming More Militant".Intelligence Report.Montgomery, Alabama:Southern Poverty Law Center. Fall 2008. Retrieved31 July 2020.
  36. ^"History of Hebrew Israelism".Intelligence Report.Montgomery, Alabama:Southern Poverty Law Center. 2015. Retrieved31 July 2020.
  37. ^Corbman, Marjorie (June 2020). Fletcher, Jeannine H. (ed.)."The Creation of the Devil and the End of the White Man's Rule: The Theological Influence of the Nation of Islam on Early Black Theology".Religions.11 (6:Racism and Religious Diversity in the United States).Basel:MDPI: 305.doi:10.3390/rel11060305.eISSN 2077-1444.
  38. ^Walker, Dennis (2012) [1990]."The Black Muslims in American Society: From Millenarian Protest to Trans-Continental Relationships". In Trompf, G. W. (ed.).Cargo Cults and Millenarian Movements: Transoceanic Comparisons of New Religious Movements. Religion and Society. Vol. 29.Berlin andBoston:De Gruyter. pp. 343–390.doi:10.1515/9783110874419.343.ISBN 9783110874419.
  39. ^Berg, Herbert (2011)."Elijah Muhammad's Redeployment of Muḥammad: Racialist and Prophetic Interpretations of the Qurʾān". In Boekhoff-van der Voort, Nicolet; Versteegh, Kees; Wagemakers, Joas (eds.).The Transmission and Dynamics of the Textual Sources of Islam: Essays in Honour of Harald Motzki. Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 89.Leiden:Brill Publishers. pp. 329–353.doi:10.1163/9789004206786_017.ISBN 978-90-04-20678-6.ISSN 0929-2403.
  40. ^Hauser, Thomas (15 June 1992).Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times. Simon and Schuster. p. 85.ISBN 978-0-671-77971-9.
  41. ^Gibson, Dawn-Marie (2012).A History of the Nation of Islam: Race, Islam, and the Quest for Freedom. ABC-CLIO. p. 163.ISBN 978-0-313-39807-0.
  42. ^abc"Extremist Sects Within the Black Hebrew Israelite Movement".Adl.org.New York:Anti-Defamation League. September 2020.Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved4 November 2020.
  43. ^"The Creativity Movement".Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived fromthe original on July 29, 2017. RetrievedFebruary 10, 2017.
  44. ^Michael, George (2003).Confronting Right Wing Extremism and Terrorism in the USA. Routledge. p. 72.ISBN 978-1134377619.
  45. ^"Westboro Baptist Church". Anti-Defamation League. Archived fromthe original on July 7, 2010. RetrievedJune 20, 2010.
  46. ^Jones, K. Ryan (2008),Fall from Grace (documentary).
  47. ^Wing, Nick (2010-12-09)."Elizabeth Edwards Funeral To Be Picketed By Westboro Baptist Church".The Huffington Post.
  48. ^"About Westboro Baptist Church".God Hates Fags. Westboro Baptist Church. Archived from the original on June 18, 2017. RetrievedJune 18, 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  49. ^"Lauren Drain, Former Westboro Baptist Member, Says Group 'Brainwashed' And 'Manipulated' Her (VIDEO)". March 7, 2013 – via Huff Post.
  50. ^Kuruvilla, Carol (6 February 2013)."Former Westboro Baptist Church member speaks out: 'I was brainwashed' – NY Daily News".New York Daily News.
  51. ^"Daughter who fled Westboro Baptist Church tells of brainwashing".Independent.ie. February 7, 2013.
  52. ^Carter, Joe (June 16, 2017)."9 Things You Should Know About Fred Phelps and Westboro Baptist Church".The Gospel Coalition.
  53. ^The year in hate 2005,Southern Poverty Law Center.
  54. ^Kelsey-Sugg, Anna (3 April 2021)."Misogynistic 'radicalisation' of boys online has these experts calling for change".ABC News.Life Matters.Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved5 April 2021.
  55. ^Staff (ndg)"Proud Boys"Southern Poverty Law Center
  56. ^Jacobs, Emma."Proud Boys Named 'Terrorist Entity' In Canada".NPR.org.NPR. Retrieved29 June 2021.
  57. ^abMeddaugh and Kay (2009)
  58. ^Schafer and Navarro (2002); Williamson and Pierson (2003)
  59. ^[1] Moody, M., "New Media-Same Stereotypes: An Analysis of Social Media Depictions of President Barack Obama and Michelle Obama", 'The Journal of New Media & Culture (2012).][permanent dead link]
  60. ^McNamee, L.G.; Peterson, B.L.; Pena, J. (2010). "A call to educate, participate, invoke, and indict: understanding the communication of online hate groups".Communication Monographs.77 (2):257–80.doi:10.1080/03637751003758227.S2CID 143387827.
  61. ^Perry and Olsson (2009)
  62. ^Bachelard, Michael; McMahon, Luke (17 October 2015)."New Aussie 'patriots' leader Blair Cottrell wanted Hitler in the classroom".
  63. ^McPherson, Tahlia (20 September 2015)."Hostility to hit Albury".
  64. ^Halevy, N.; Weisel, O.; Bornstein, G. (2012). ""In-group love" and "out-group hate" in repeated interaction between groups".Journal of Behavioral Decision Making.25 (2):188–95.doi:10.1002/bdm.726.
  65. ^Halevy, N.; Bornstein, G.; Sagiv, L. (2008). ""In-group love" and "out-group hate" as motives for individual participation in intergroup conflict".Psychological Science.19 (4):405–11.doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02100.x.PMID 18399895.S2CID 6869770.
  66. ^Parker, M.T.; Janoff-Bulman, R. (2013). "Lessons from morality-based social identity: the power of outgroup "hate," not just ingroup "love"".Social Justice Research.26 (1):81–96.doi:10.1007/s11211-012-0175-6.S2CID 144523660.
  67. ^abStephan, W.G.; Stephan, C.W. (2000). "An integrated theory of prejudice".Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination: The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology:23–45.
  68. ^abRiek, B.M.; Mania, E.W.; Gaertner, S.L. (2006). "Intergroup threat and outgroup attitudes: a meta-analytic review".Personality and Social Psychology Review.10 (4):336–53.doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_4.PMID 17201592.S2CID 144762865.
  69. ^Sherif, M., & Sherif, C.W. (1969).Social psychology. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 221–66.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  70. ^McConahay, J.B. "Self-interest versus racial attitudes as correlates of anti-busing attitudes in Louisville: Is it the buses or the blacks?".Journal of Politics.441:692–720.
  71. ^Kinder, D.R.; Sears, D.O. (1981). "Prejudice and politics: Symbolic racism versus racial threats to the good life".Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.40 (3):414–31.doi:10.1037/0022-3514.40.3.414.
  72. ^Ho, C.; Jackson, J.W. (2001). "Attitudes toward Asian Americans: Theory and measurement".Journal of Applied Social Psychology.31 (8):1553–81.doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb02742.x.
  73. ^Eagley, A.H.; Mladinic, A. (1989). "Gender stereotypes and attitudes toward women and men".Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.15 (4):543–58.doi:10.1177/0146167289154008.S2CID 145550350.
  74. ^"2003 FBI Law Enforcement bulletin". 2003. Archived fromthe original on 2013-08-18.
  75. ^abSchafer, J.R. (2006). "The seven-stage hate model: the psychopathology of hate groups".Cultic Studies Review.5:73–86.
  76. ^Sternberg, R.J. (2005).The Psychology of Hate. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. pp. 61–63.
  77. ^Tetrault, Justin Everett Cobain. "What’s hate got to do with it? Right-wing movements and the hate stereotype." Current sociology 69, no. 1 (2021): 3-23.
  78. ^Purington, M. S. (2017).Assessing the reliability and accuracy of advocacy group data in hate group research, James Madison University
  79. ^Chokshi N (2016) The year of ‘enormous rage’. The Washington Post. Available at: www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2016/02/17/hate-groups-rose-14-percent-last-year-the-first-increase-since-2010/.

Further reading

External links

[edit]


Forms
Attributes
Social
Religious
Race / Ethnicity
Manifestations
Discriminatory
policies
Countermeasures
Related topics
Types of racism
Manifestations
of racism
Racism by region
Racism by target
Related topics
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