| Haplogroup D-M174 | |
|---|---|
| Possible time of origin | 50,000[1]-60,000[2] years BP 65,200 [95% CI 62,100 <-> 68,300] ybp[3] |
| Coalescence age | 46,300 [95% CI 43,500 <-> 49,100] ybp[3] |
| Possible place of origin | Asia[2][4][5] (probablySouth Asia[6] orCentral Asia[7]) |
| Ancestor | D (CTS3946) |
| Descendants | D1a (CTS11577) D1a1 (Z27276) D1a2 (Z3660) D1a2a (M55) D1a2b (Y34637) D1b (L1378) |
| Defining mutations | M174, IMS-JST021355, PAGES00003 |
Haplogroup D1 orD-M174 is asubclade ofhaplogroup D-CTS3946. This broad lineage of the male-specific portion of the human Y chromosome is found primarily inEast Asia,Magar-ethnicNepal and theAndaman Islands. It is also found regularly with lower frequency inCentral Asia,North Asia andMainland Southeast Asia, and, more rarely, inEurope andWest Asia.
Human Y chromosome haplogroup D-M174 likely originated inAsia roughly 60,000 years ago.[2][4] While haplogroup D-M174, along withhaplogroup E, contains the distinctiveYAPpolymorphism—which indicates their closer ancestry than C—no haplogroup D-M174chromosomes have been found outside of Asia.[4] Haplogroup D1 is also often found in Southern Asia's populations.[8]
Several studies (Hammer et al. 2006, Shinoda 2008, Matsumoto 2009) suggested that paternal haplogroup D-M174 originated inCentral Asia.[7]
A 2017 study by Mondal et al. finds that theRiang people (aTibeto-Burmese population) and theAndamanese share the same D clade (D1a3, also known as D1a2b) and have their closest lineages with other clades in East Asia. TheJarawa andOnge shared D1a2b with each other within the last ~7,000 years. The East Asian D1a2b diverged from theJapanese D1a2a lineage ~53,000 years ago. The authors conclude: "This strongly suggests that haplogroup D does not indicate a separate ancestry for Andamanese populations. Rather, haplogroup D was part of the standing variation carried by the Eastern OOA expansion, and later lost from most of the populations except in Andaman and partially in Japan and Tibet".[9]
A 2019 study by Haber et al. suggested that Haplogroup D-M174 originated in Central Asia and evolved as it migrated to different directions of the continent. One group of population migrated to Siberia, others to Japan and Tibet, and another group migrated to the Andaman islands.[10]
A 2020 genetic study by Hallast et al. on ancient and modern haplogroups using aphylogenetic analysis of haplogroup C, D, and FT sequences—including very rare deep-rooting lineages such as D0/D2, a divergent D lineage not belonging to D-M174—argues that the initial splits withinhaplogroup CT (an ancestor ofDE) occurred inAfrica. It also argues thatphylogeographic analyses of ancient and present-day non-AfricanY chromosomes all point to East/Southeast Asia as the origin of all known surviving non-African male lineages (apart from recent migrants) soon after an initial 70,000–55,000-year-ago migration from Africa ofbasal haplogroup D and other basal Y-lineages. It argues that these lineages then rapidly expanded acrossEurasia, diversified in Southeast Asia, and expanded westward around 55,000–50,000 years ago, replacing other local lineages within Eurasia; haplogroup D (as D-M174) then underwent rapid expansions within Eastern Eurasian populations and consists of five branches that formed about 45,000 years ago. The study finds that these haplogroups currently have their greatest diversity in Eastern Eurasia (East/Southeast Asia). Tibeto-Burmese populations of East and Southeast Asia were found to have the highest amount of diversity.[11]
A 2024 study found that a primitive D1b subclade can be found in the Philippines and possibly in MalaysianHoabinhian foragers.[12]
Haplogroup D-M174 is found today with high frequency among populations inTibet,Magar-ethnicNepal, northernMyanmar,Qinghai, theJapanese archipelago, and theAndaman Islands, though curiously not as much in the rest ofIndia. TheAinu people ofJapan and various Tibeto-Burmese people (such as theTripuri people) are notable for possessing almost exclusively haplogroup D-M174 chromosomes. Haplogroup D-M174 chromosomes are also found at low to moderate frequencies among theBai,Dai,Han,Hui,Manchu,Miao,Tujia,Xibe,Yao, andZhuang peoples ofChina and among several minority populations ofSichuan andYunnan that speakTibeto-Burman languages and reside in close proximity to the Tibetans, such as theJingpo,Jino,Mosuo,Naxi,Pumi,Qiang, andYi.[13]
Haplogroup D is also found in populations in China proper and inKorea, but with much lower frequency than in Tibet and Japan. A study published in 2011 found D-M174 in 2.49% (43/1729) of Han Chinese males, with frequencies tending to be higher than average toward the north and west of the country (8.9% ofShaanxi Han, 5.9% ofGansu Han, 4.4% ofYunnan Han, 3.7% ofGuangxi Han, 3.3% ofHunan Han, and 3.2% ofSichuan Han).[14] In another study of Han Chinese Y-DNA published in 2011, haplogroup D-M174 was observed in 1.94% (7/361) of a sample of unrelated Han Chinese male volunteers atFudan University inShanghai, with the origins of most of the volunteers being traced back to East China (Jiangsu,Zhejiang, Shanghai, andAnhui).[15]
In Korea, haplogroup D-M174 was observed in 3.8% (5/133) of a sample fromDaejeon,[16] 3.5% (3/85) of a sample fromSeoul,[17] 3.3% (3/90) of a sample fromJeolla,[18] 2.4% (2/84) of a sample fromGyeongsang,[18] 2.3% (13/573) of another sample from Seoul,[16] 1.4% (1/72) of a sample fromChungcheong,[18] 1.1% (1/87) of a sample fromJeju,[18] and 0.9% (1/110) of a third sample from Seoul-Gyeonggi.[18] In other studies, haplogroup D-M174 has been observed in 6.7% (3/45)[19] and 4.0% (3/75)[20] of samples from Korea without any further specification of the area of sampling.
Little high-resolution data regarding the phylogenetic position of Han Chinese and Korean members of Y-DNA haplogroup D has been published, but the available data suggests that most Han Chinese members of haplogroup D should belong to clades found frequently among Tibetans (especially the D-M15 clade, also found among speakers of someLolo-Burmese andHmong-Mien languages), whereas most Korean members of haplogroup D should belong to the D-M55 clade, which is found frequently amongAinu,Ryukyuan, andJapanese people.[20][18][3]
Haplogroup D Y-DNA has been found (albeit with low frequency) among modern populations of theEurasian steppe, such as:
It has also been found among linguistically similar (Turkic- orMongolic-speaking) modern populations of the desert and oasis belt south of the steppe, such asYugurs,Bao'an,Monguors,Uyghurs, andUzbeks. In commercial testing, members have been found as far west asRomania in Europe andIraq in Western Asia.[26]
Unlike haplogroup C-M217, haplogroup D-M174 is not found in theNew World; it is not present in any modern Native American (North, Central, or South) populations. While it is possible that it traveled to the New World like haplogroup C-M217, those lineages apparently became extinct.
Haplogroup D-M174 is remarkable for its rather extreme geographic differentiation, with a distinct subset of chromosomes being found exclusively in each of the populations that contains a large percentage of individuals whose Y-chromosomes belong to haplogroup D-M174:haplogroup D-M15 amongTibetans, as well as other East/Southeast Asian populations that display low frequencies of haplogroup D-M174 Y-chromosomes;haplogroup D-M55 among the various populations of the Japanese archipelago and with low frequency amongKoreans; and haplogroup D-P99 among the inhabitants of Tibet and some other parts of central Eurasia (e.g. Mongolia[27] and theAltai[20][21][22]). D-M174* without positive-tested subclades D-M15 or D-M55 is found at high frequencies amongAndaman Islanders, and recently an Andamanese subclade was found to beD-Y34637 (D1a2b).[3] Another type (or types) of paragroup D-M174* without positive-tested subclades of D-M15, D-P47, or D-M55 is found at a very low frequency among theTurkic andMongolic populations ofCentral Asia, amounting to no more than 1% in total. This apparently ancient diversification of haplogroup D-M174 suggests that it may perhaps be better characterized as a "super-haplogroup" or "macro-haplogroup".
In one study, the frequency of haplogroup D-M174 without positive-tested subclades found amongThais was 10%.[2] Suet al. (2000) found DE-YAP/DYS287(xM15) in 11.1% (5/45) of a set of three samples from Thailand—including 20% (4/20) North Thai, 20% (1/5)So, and 0% (0/20) Northeast Thai—and in 16.7% (1/6) of a sample fromGuam.[28] Meanwhile, the authors found D-M15 in 15% of a pair of samples ofYao, including 30% (3/10) YaoJinxiu and 0% (0/10) YaoNandan; 14.3% (2/14) of a sample ofYi; 3.8% (1/26) of a sample ofCambodians; and 3.6% (1/28) of a sample ofZhuang.[28] Donget al. (2002) found DE-YAP Y-chromosomes in 12.5% (2/16) of a sample ofJingpo fromLuxi City, Yunnan, 10.0% (2/20) of a sample ofDai from Luxi City, and 1.82% (1/55) of a sample ofNu fromGongshan andFugong, Yunnan.[29]
The haplogroup D-M174 Y-chromosomes that are found among Tibeto-Burman populations as well as people of the Japanese archipelago belong to haplogroup D1a2b, D1a2a, and D1a1. D-M55 (D1a2a) is particularly distinctive, bearing a complex of at least five individual mutations along an internal branch of the haplogroup D-M174phylogeny, thus distinguishing it clearly from the other haplogroup D-M174 chromosomes that are found among Tibetans and Andaman Islanders and providing evidence that Y-chromosome haplogroup D-M55 was the modal haplogroup in the ancestral population that developed the prehistoricJōmon culture in the Japanese islands.
It is suggested that the majority of D-M174 Y-chromosome carriers migrated fromCentral Asia toEast Asia. One group migrated to the Andaman Islands, thus forming or helping to form the Andamanese people. Another group stayed in modern Tibet and southern China (today Tibeto-Burman peoples), and a third group migrated to Japan, possibly via theKorean Peninsula (pre-Jōmon people).[2][20]
Haplogroup D-Z27276 is the common ancestor of D-M15 and D-P99, which are common in Tibet (China).
D-M15 was first reported to have been found in a sample fromCambodia andLaos (1/18 = 5.6%) and in a sample from Japan (1/23 = 4.3%) in a preliminary worldwide survey of Y-DNA variation in extant human populations.[30]
Subsequently, Y-DNA belonging to haplogroup D-M15 has been found frequently amongTibeto-Burman-speaking populations ofSouthwestern China (including approximately 23% ofQiang,[2][31][32] approximately 12.5% ofTibetans,[2] and approximately 9% ofYi[2][33]), and amongYao people inhabiting northeasternGuangxi (6/31 = 19.4% Lowland Yao, 5/41 = 12.2% Native Mien, 3/41 = 7.3% Lowland Kimmun),[34] with a moderate distribution throughoutCentral Asia,East Asia, and continentalSoutheast Asia (Indochina).[2]
A study published in 2011 found D-M15 in 7.8% (4/51) of a sample ofHmong Daw and in 3.4% (1/29) of a sample ofXinhmul from northern Laos.[34]
This subclade is found with high frequency amongPumi,[2]Naxi,[2] andTibetans,Lu D, Lou H, Yuan K, Wang X, Wang Y, Zhang C, et al. (September 2016)."Ancestral Origins and Genetic History of Tibetan Highlanders".American Journal of Human Genetics.99 (3):580–594.doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2016.07.002.PMC 5011065.PMID 27569548.[2] with a moderate distribution inCentral Asia.[2] According to one study, Tibetans have a frequency of about 41.31% of haplogroup D-P47.[2]
For about 7,000 years, the natives of the Andaman Islands shared a common ancestry with each other. The closest lineage to the Andamanese is the Japanese haplogroup D, with which it has a very old relationship, dating back to about 53,000 years.[9]
Previously known asD-M55, D-M64.1/Page44.1 (D1a2a) is found with high frequency amongAinu[35] and with medium frequency amongJapanese[36] andRyukyuans.[36]
Kimet al. (2011) found haplogroup D-M55 in 2.0% (1/51) of a sample ofBeijingHan and in 1.6% (8/506) of a pool of samples fromSouth Korea, including 3.3% (3/90) from the Jeolla region, 2.4% (2/84) from the Gyeongsang region, 1.4% (1/72) from the Chungcheong region, 1.1% (1/87) from the Jeju region, 0.9% (1/110) from the Seoul-Gyeonggi region, and 0% (0/63) from the Gangwon region.[18] Hammeret al. (2006) found haplogroup D-P37.1 in 4.0% (3/75) of a sample from South Korea.[20]
D-M116.1, which is a subclade of D-M55, has been observed in one individual in a sample from Micronesia (n=17) according to the supplementary material of a study published in 2006.[20] D-M116.1 also has been observed in one individual in a pool of samples from West Timor (n=497); the pertinent individual is from Umaklaran, located on the north side of the island of Timor near the border withEast Timor.[37]
According toMitsuru Sakitani, haplogroup D1 arrived from Central Asia to northernKyushu via theAltai Mountains and theKorean Peninsula more than 40,000 years ago, and haplogroup D-M55 (D1a2a) was born in the Japanese archipelago.[38]
D1a2b (formerly one of D*) is found at high frequencies amongAndaman Islanders,[2] especiallyOnge (23/23 = 100%) andJarawa (4/4 = 100%).[39][3]
D1b (L1378, M226.2) has been found in commercial testing in two families fromMactan Island in theCebu region of thePhilippines, in the ethnicRade people fromVietnam as well as an ancient sample from Malaysia.[40]
D-M174 (xM15, P99, M55) is found in some tribes ofNortheast India (among whom rates vary from 0% to 65%).[5][41][42][43]
The basal D-M174 (xM15, P47, M55) has been found in approximately 5% ofAltaians.[20] Kharkovet al. found haplogroup D*(xD-M15) in 6.3% (6/96) of a pool of samples of Southern Altaians from three different localities, particularly inKulada (5/46 = 10.9%) andKosh-Agach (1/7 = 14%), though they did not test for any marker of the subclade D-M55 or D-P99. Kharkovet al. also reported finding haplogroup DE-M1(xD-M174) Y-DNA in one Southern Altaian individual fromBeshpeltir (1/43 = 2.3%).[21]
In 2023, D-M174 was found in one individual inLa Crosse, Wisconsin.[44]
Prior to 2002, there were in academic literature at least seven naming systems for the Y-chromosome phylogenetic tree. This led to considerable confusion. In 2002, major research groups came together and formed theY Chromosome Consortium (YCC). They published a joint paper that created a single new tree. Later, a group of citizen scientists with an interest in population genetics and genealogy formed a working group to create an amateur tree. The table below brings together all of these works at the point of the landmark 2002 YCC tree. This allows a researcher reviewing older published literature to quickly move between nomenclatures.
| YCC 2002/2008 (Shorthand) | (α) | (β) | (γ) | (δ) | (ε) | (ζ) | (η) | YCC 2002 (Longhand) | YCC 2005 (Longhand) | YCC 2008 (Longhand) | YCC 2010r (Longhand) | ISOGG 2006 | ISOGG 2007 | ISOGG 2008 | ISOGG 2009 | ISOGG 2010 | ISOGG 2011 | ISOGG 2012 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| D-M174 | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | D | D | D | D | D | D | D | D | D | D |
| D-M15 | 4 | IV | 3G | 12 | Eu5 | H3 | B | D1 | D1 | D1 | D1 | D1 | D1 | D1 | D1 | D1 | D1 | D1 |
| D-M55 | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | D2 | D2 | D2 | D2 | D2 | D2 | D2 | D2 | D2 | D2 |
| D-P12 | 4 | IV | 3G | 11 | Eu5 | H2 | B | D2a | D2a | D2a1a1 | D2a1a1 | D2 | D2 | D2a1a1 | D2a1a1 | D2a1a1 | removed | removed |
| D-M116.1 | 4 | IV | 3G | 11 | Eu5 | H2 | B | D2b* | D2a | D2a | D2a | D2a | D2a | D2a | D2a | D2a | removed | removed |
| D-M125 | 4 | IV | 3G | 11 | Eu5 | H2 | B | D2b1 | D2a1 | D2a1 | D2a1 | D2a1 | D2a1 | D2a1 | D2a1 | D2a1 | D2a1 | D2a1 |
| D-M151 | 4 | IV | 3G | 11 | Eu5 | H2 | B | D2b2 | D2a1 | D2a2 | D2a2 | D2a2 | D2a2 | D2a2 | D2a2 | D2a2 | D2a2 | D2a2 |
The following research teams, per their publications, were represented in the creation of the YCC tree.
By ISOGG tree(Version 14.151):[53]
| |||
Footnotes
| |||
In contrast, the Riang (Tibeto-Burman-speaking) and Andamanese have their nearest neighbour lineages in East Asia. The Jarawa and Onge shared haplogroup D lineages with each other within the last ~7000 years, but had diverged from Japanese haplogroup D Y-chromosomes ~53000 years ago, most likely by a split from a shared ancestral population.
