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| Han nationalism | |||||||||
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| Traditional Chinese | 漢民族主義 | ||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 汉民族主义 | ||||||||
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Han nationalism is a form ofethnic nationalism asserting ethnicallyHan Chinese as the exclusive constituents of the Chinese nation. It is often in dialogue with other conceptions ofChinese nationalism, often mutually-exclusive or otherwise contradictory ones. Han Chinese are the dominant ethnic group in both states claiming to represent the Chinese nation: theRepublic of China and thePeople's Republic of China.
Han Chinese also constitute a sizableethnic minority or plurality group in a number of other countries, such asMalaysia andSingapore. In the modern era, ethnicity's role in the Chinese nation continue to color conceptions of Chinese culture, geopolitics, and history.
UnlikeChinese nationalism, Han Chinese nationalism has a historical root of being strongly stressed on the Han Chinese people, the dominant ethnic group of China that originates fromHuaxia orSinitic people. Han Chinese nationalism has often been used as a rallying force, stemming from the historical pride of the Han Chinese people in developing one of the world's earliest civilizations.[3][4]
Since theHan dynasty, ideas of Han Chinese superiority have been frequently used in attempts to expand China's territory. Examples of this can be seen in previous Chinese invasions of Korea and Vietnam, and in historical conquests of Central Asia, Tibet, Xinjiang and Mongolia.[5][6][7] This was later inherited by later dynasties of China, notably theTang dynasty and theMing dynasty. The Tang dynasty exerted control beyond the border of old Huaxia, allowing the later Ming dynasty to become a major naval power. Han Chinese ideas of superiority were complex, with contrasting Confucian narratives of Han superiority and ones of diversity in the army and the Empire.[8][9][10][11]
Han Chinese nationalism also played a key part in rallying against non-Han control of China. The Han Chinese nationalist movement led byMing dynasty's Hongwu Emperor played an instrumental role in the overthrow of theMongolYuan dynasty.[12] Han Chinese nationalism was also integral to the rebellion against theManchuQing dynasty and became increasingly institutionalized following theCentury of Humiliation. These rebellions were often led by Han Chinese nationalists, includingSun Yat-sen, who considered the Manchu Qing dynasty corrupt and immoral, and took an aggressive stance againstWestern imperialism.[13][14][15] TheBoxer Rebellion in late 19th century had been seen as another specific part of Han Chinese nationalism juxtaposed against Western imperialism in China, where Han Chinese nationalists were against Western and modern ideas and sought to revive old Chinese traditions.[16][17]
Following the fall of the Qing dynasty, Sun Yat-sen attempted to build a more multi-ethnic form of Chinese nationalism. He had some noteworthy successes, such as the rise ofNationalist China and thefive-colored flag. Han Chinese nationalism remains prominent in China today. Chinese leaders have employed Han nationalist sentiments, including the ongoing Han domination of China, and promotion of nationalism, as witnessed in the Republic's domestic and foreign relations.[18]
Han chauvinism is described as a more radical form of Han nationalism by theChinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP chairmanMao Zedong coined the term in order to describe thechauvinism of the Han Chinese, first on 16 March 1953, in order to criticize theethnocentrism that existed among the Han Chinese in China. In a party directive which was drafted for theCentral Committee of the Chinese Communist Party titled "Criticize Han Chauvinism," Mao said, "In some places, the relations between nationalities are far from normal. For Communists, this is an intolerable situation. We must go to the root and criticize the Han chauvinist ideas which exist to a serious degree among many Party members and cadres ..."[19]
It appeared again in a 1956 speech, titledTen Major Relations, Mao stated that "on the relationship between the Han ethnicity andminority ethnicities ... we put the emphasis on opposing Han chauvinism".[20] This anti-chauvinistic idea is part of thePeople's Republic of China'szhonghua minzu conception of China as a multi-ethnicnation, both historically and in the present, which includes not only the Han but also 55 ethnic minorities. This is expressed in theconstitution of the People's Republic of China, which states that China is a "unitary [multiethnic] state created jointly by the people of all its ethnicities" and "it is necessary to combat big [ethnic group] chauvinism, mainly Han chauvinism, and combat local [ethnic] national[ist] chauvinism".[21]
The PRC's notions of Han chauvinism and China as a multicultural state have been subjected to criticism, mainly by the western media. One critical view is that the Han Chinese "are less homogeneous than official policy recognizes".[21]Zhonghua minzu has been criticized as an invention of the 20th century, and was adopted by the Communist Party only to criticize the failures of the rivalKuomintang (KMT), which officially promotedzhonghua minzu as part of its nationalist ideology. Many policies have been made to give privilege to minority ethnicities, leading to grudges from some of the Han Chinese.[22] Despite this, authorities in China have also denied the existence of racism or racial discrimination in China.[23]
In post-Mao China, Han chauvinism has been recognized as a threat by successive generations of its leadership, including theadministration ofCCP General SecretaryXi Jinping. However, Xi Jinping's concept of aChinese Dream is believed to have distinctly Han dimensions, and it is also believed to support Han chauvinism even if it is unwittingly doing so.[24] The fusion of traditional Han chauvinism with Chinese nationalism as practiced by the modern Chinese state has been described as Han-centrism.[25]
Although Han Chinese nationalism and Chinese nationalism are different in terms of ideology, with the latter often emphasizing a more multi-ethnic form of nationalism, both forms of nationalism have frequently been connected and espoused together, due to historical and current control of China by the ethnic Han Chinese majority. The concept was first debated in the early 20th century; one of those who debated it wasZhang Taiyan, who strongly opposed the development of a multi-ethnic form of nationalism which was proposed byYang Du andLiang Qichao, stressed the existence of the Han ethnic bloodline as evidence of the greatness of China and rejected the notion of a multiethnic China, being skeptical of non-Han ethnic groups likeManchus,Mongols,Tibetans and Turkic Muslims.[26] Zhang Taiyan strongly criticized non-Han ethnic groups, notably the Manchus, he considered the Manchus and other non-Han Chinese oppressors and believed that they could not be assimilated because they had no understanding of Han Chinese culture and customs.[26] There were, however, significant proponents of a multi-ethnic form of Chinese nationalism as well, andTibet remained independent during the rule of the Republic of China.[27][28]
The multifaceted image of Han Chinese nationalism continued to develop during the formation of the modern Chinese state. Han Chinese nationalists had a low opinion of ethnicUyghurs andTibetans, viewing them as threats to the Chinese state due to their different cultures and their lack of sympathy for ethnic Han Chinese — resulting in several conflicts during the 1930s and 1940s.[29][30][31][32] Han Chinese nationalism also played a role during World War II, a war which was waged in conjunction with theSecond Sino-Japanese War as a part ofWorld War II, a war in which the Han Chinese people frequently suffered, and fought, against theJapanese.[33][34]
Although the current Chinese government has largely attempted to promote the idea of a multiethnic nationalism with Han Chinese is the main people instead of a singular ethnic nationalism, scholars and analysts have pointed about the lack of an agreed-upon definition of Chinese nationalism may have impacted on China's political decision with regard to other non-Han Chinese people or nations.[35][18][36][37]
Since theannexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China in 1950, Han Chinese nationalists, with support from the PRC government, have been distributing historical documents which portrayTibetan culture as barbaric in order to justify Chinese control of the territory of Tibet; as such, many members of Chinese society have a negative view of Tibet. Han Chinese continue to maintain the view thatTibet was historically a feudal society which practiced serfdom/slavery and that this only changed due to Chinese influence in the region in order to liberate the Tibetans from its own backwardness and China's duty is to bring civilization to Tibetans.[38][39] Furthermore, Han nationalists endorsePrincess Wencheng, an ancient Chinese princess who purportedly married kingSongsten Gampo of Tibet and introducedBuddhism to Tibet.[40] Further, Han Chinese extremists believe that Tibetans [and Mongols, Uyghurs] are actually part of the wider Han Chinese family with different genetics.[38][41]
Since being conquered in 1758,Uyghurs fromXinjiang have had issues with theManchurian andlater Chinese governments. Han migration dating back to theQing dynasty led to the increasingsinicization of the region, which the policy further extended to ethnic relations.[42] Han andHui people often live closer to Uighurs and many developed a negative stereotype of them.[43]
Inner Mongolia has been largely pacified since the 20th century, thanks to massive Han migration andintermarriage; Mongols have been perceived to be better integrated into the society than that of Uyghurs and Tibetans.[44] However, this is also where the infamousInner Mongolia incident happened, leading to deaths of 16,000 to 27,000Mongols.[45] Further policies deemed to be anti-Mongol by the Han Chinese government had led to2011 Inner Mongolia unrest and was followed by another wave of unrest in 2015 against the exploitation and misuse of Mongol lands, as well as perceived bias in favor of ethnic Han Chinese.[46]
In Taiwan, Han-centricTaiwanese nationalism is distinct from Han-centric Chinese nationalism. Han Taiwanese nationalism focuses on non-mainlanders and non-Austronesians, includingHokkien andHakka. However, not allTaiwanese nationalists are Han nationalists.[47]Zheng Chenggong, who founded theKingdom of Tungning, was a representative early Han nationalist in Taiwan, though he was of halfJapanese ancestry. In 2004, then-Taiwanese Vice President and pro-Taiwan independence activistAnnette Lu caused controversy by making Han-centric racist comments aboutTaiwanese indigenous peoples.[48]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)| Sino-Tibetan |
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| Austroasiatic | |||||||||||
| Austronesian | |||||||||||
| Hmong-Mien | |||||||||||
| Mongolic | |||||||||||
| Kra–Dai | |||||||||||
| Tungusic | |||||||||||
| Turkic | |||||||||||
| Indo-European | |||||||||||
| Others | |||||||||||
| Related | |||||||||||
Underlined: the 56 officially recognised ethnic groups ranked by population in their language families according to2020 census | |||||||||||
