Hammadid dynasty | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1014–1152 | |||||||||||||
 Hammadid territories circa 1065, at their greatest extent during the reign ofAl Nacir | |||||||||||||
| Status | Nominal vassal of theAbbasid orFatimid Caliphate[a] | ||||||||||||
| Capital | |||||||||||||
| Official languages | Arabic[1][2] | ||||||||||||
| Common languages | Maghrebi Arabic Berber languages | ||||||||||||
| Religion | |||||||||||||
| Government | Hereditary monarchy | ||||||||||||
| Emir | |||||||||||||
• c. 1007-1028 | Hammad(first) | ||||||||||||
• c. 1062-1088 | Al Nasir ibn Alnas | ||||||||||||
• c. 1121-1152 | Yahya ibn Abd al-Aziz(last) | ||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||
| 1014 | |||||||||||||
• Conquered by theAlmohads | 1152 | ||||||||||||
| Currency | Dinar (gold coin)[3]: 240 | ||||||||||||
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Part ofa series on the |
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| History ofAlgeria |
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Modern times |
| Historical Berber states and dynasties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Pre-Islamic Berber confederations and dynasties
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Post-Islamic kingdoms and caliphates
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Western dynasties and taifas
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TheHammadid dynasty (Arabic:الحماديون,romanized: Al-Hāmmādiyūn,lit. 'children ofHammad'), also known as theHammadid Emirate or theKingdom of Bejaia,[4]: 350 was amedievalIslamic kingdom[3]: 240 in the centralMaghreb,[5] encompassing what is now Algeria. It was established at the beginning of the11th century whenHammad ibn Buluggin declared himselfemir,[6] thus splitting theZirid domains into two separate dynasties. Under the reign ofEmir Al Nasir, theemirate briefly became the most important state in theMaghreb,[7] and reached its greatest territorial extent, stretching fromTlemcen in the west toTunis in the east,[3]: 238 [4]: 362 [7] and from theMediterranean Sea in the north to thedesertoasis ofOuargla andOued Righ in the south.[3]: 238 [8] While they briefly controlled the principality ofFez in the west and cities likeSfax,Kairouan,Laribus, andTripoli to the east.[3]: 238 [9][10][7]
At first, Hammad built afortified city that would serve as thecapital for his newly declared kingdom.[5]: 40 [3]: 234 [6]: 20 [11] Later, upon the arrival of the ArabicBanu Hilal tribes, the capital would be replaced by another city, newly built byEmir Al Nasir ibn Alnas, calledAl-Nāsiriyyah (fromArabic:الناصرية) and later renamed toBejaia;[12]: 100 [7]: 45 [13][14] it was the official capital of the Emirate by 1090 during the rule ofAl-Mansur.[7]: 46 Both cities grew to become among the largest and most prosperous centers of the Maghreb,[14] withBejaia housing more than 100,000 inhabitants.[13]: 59 [14][11] The Hammadids subsequently clashed with theAlmoravids in the west and their cousins theZirids in the east.[15][8]: 54 [6]: 80 The latter weakened with the rise of the prominentNormans in Sicily,[7]: 47 [11][16] who also confronted the Hammadids for the domination ofIfriqiya (nowTunisia).[12]: 188 [6]: 98 [3]: 260 However, the Hammadids faced another challenge on their western borders with the growing force of theAlmohad Caliphate,[7]: 47 and their emirate was finally annexed by theAlmohads in 1152 after a brief clash with them.[7]: 47 [11][8]: 58
In 987 and 989,al-Mansur ibn Buluggin, theemir of theBerberZirid dynasty, appointed his uncleHammad ibn Buluggin as governor of Ashir and westernZirid lands. Hammad subsequently defended the territory against Zenata incursions and was granted additional lands by al-Mansur's successorBadis ibn Mansur. In 1007 and 1008, forces under Hammad left Ashir and built a new citadel-capital,Qal'at Bani Hammad (also calledAl Qal'a of Beni Hammad), inM'Sila Province in theHodna Mountains; a thriving city sprang up around the fortress.[11]
In 1014, Hammad declared his independence from Ziridsuzerainty and switched his spiritual allegiance from theShi'aFatimid caliphs to theSunniAbbasid caliphs ofBaghdad. TheZirids failed to quash the rebellion and recognized Hammadid legitimacy in 1017, in a peace withal-Mu'izz that was sealed by Hammad's son and successorQaid ibn Hammad (r. 1028–1054).[11] The peace was further sealed by marriage, with al-Mu'izz's sister marrying one of Hammad's sons.[17][9] According to historian Hady Roger Idris, it appears that the Hammadids agreed to recognize Fatimid suzerainty again at this time, but at some later point in his reign, perhaps around the same time as the Zirids did in the 1040s, Qa'id ibn Hammad repudiated Fatimid suzerainty again.[9]
In 1039, Qaid ibn Hammad was attacked by Hammama, the ruler of Fes, but Hammama soon returned to Fez, requested peace, and declared his submission to the Hammadids.[18]
Al-Mu'izz subsequently also broke with the Fatimids and changed his allegiance to the Abbasids. The Fatimid caliph,al-Mustansir, sentBedouin Arab allies, theBanu Hilal andBanu Sulaym, into a mass migration and invasion of the lands in what is now Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria, culminating in al-Mu'izz's defeat in 1053 and the subsequent reduction of the Zirids to a small, insignificant territory based inMahdia.[11] Amidst the chaos, the Hammadids reverted their allegiance to the Fatimids and managed to negotiate an alliance with the Bedouin tribes.[11][9]
Although the Hammadids and Zirids entered into an agreement in 1077 in which Zirid rulerTamim's daughter married into the Hammadids, this did not end the rivalry between the dynasties.[19] A common pattern was for Hammadids and Zirids to support "rival coalitions of Arab tribes to fight theirproxy wars."[20] The Hammidid–Zirid rivalry also influenced the choice of whichcaliph to recognize; historian Amar S. Baadj writes, "It would appear that the principle which the Hammadids followed in the course of their relations with Baghdad and Cairo was that of opposing the Zirids. Whenever the Zirids recognized one of two rival caliphs, the Hammadids would declare their submission to the other."[21]
Buluggin ibn Muhammad (r. 1055–1062), a subsequent Hammadid ruler,invaded northern Morocco in 1062 and briefly tookFez for a few months, but was then assassinated by his paternal cousinAn-Nasir ibn Alnas, who succeeded him as emir.[22][9] The Hammadid dynasty peaked during al-Nasir's reign.[23][11] Under his reign the Hammadids established their control across large parts of theMaghreb. Al-Nasir capturedConstantine andAlgiers, then established Hammadid influence far to the east inSfax, where the local ruler acknowledged Hammadid suzerainty, as well as inSusa andTripoli.[9][10][24] At the request of localshaykhs, he was also able to install a loyal governor in Tunis until 1067.[25][9] Between 1067 and 1072 he builtBéjaïa, developing it from a smallfishing village into a large, fortified town and port.[24][11] The Hammadids also expanded south deep into the Sahara, withOuargla forming the southernmost city of their territory.[10][22][24] They briefly extended their authority further to the Oued Mya.[26][27]
In the 11th century, the Hammadids came under increasing pressure from the Banu Hilal, who had settled in the Plains of Constantine and increasingly threatened Qal'at Bani Hammad.[11] While initially allied to the Bedouins, the Hammadids later became their puppets, allocating half of their harvest yields to them and buying off tribesmen in order to secure the safety of trade routes. Qal'at Bani Hammad was eventually eclipsed by Béjaïa.[11] In 1090, with the Banu Hilal menace rising, the Hammadids moved their capital to Béjaïa, yielding their southern territories to the Hilalians. The Hammadids maintained control of a small but prosperous coastal territory betweenTénès andEl Kala.[11]E.J. Brill'sFirst Encyclopaedia of Islam (1927) states that the Qal'at Bani Hammad "was not completely abandoned by al-Mansur and he even embellished it with a number of palaces. The Hammadid kingdom had therefore at this point two capitals joined by a royal road."[28] Renamed al-Nasiriya to honor the emir, Béjaïa developed into a sophisticated trading city; under al-Nasir and his son and successoral-Mansur ibn Nasir, large gardens, palaces,a Great Mosque, and other landmarks were constructed in the town.[11]
An-Nasir corresponded with Pope Gregory VII and expanded commercial opportunities for Italian traders in Béjaïa. The city then flourished as a trading port and a prominent intellectual centre where even Abu Madyan and the Andalusian Shaykh Abu Ali Hassan bin Ali Muhammad taught.[24]Leonardo Fibonacci had also studied in Béjaïa; his father was appointed as collector of customs in Béjaïa and brought Leonardo with him.[29] In Béjaïa Fibonacci was introduced to the Arabic numerical system and computational method; he later introduced this numerical system to Europe.[30][31] He was also introduced to a book ofalgebra written byal-Khwarizmi.
In 1103–1104 the Hammadids defeated theAlmoravids and took control of Tlemcen.[15] During the reign of al-Mansur's sonAbd al-Aziz ibn Mansur (r. 1105–1121), Béjaïa had about 100,000 people, and the Hammadids consolidated their power in the city. The dynasty suffered a decline after this point; efforts to develop more sea power in theMediterranean were foiled by theNormans, who by the 12th century hadconquered Sicily and had also occupied a number of settlements on the coast of Tunisia and Algeria. However, Abd al-Aziz did expel the Hilalians fromHodna and captureJerba.[11]
The last dynastic emir wasYahya ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 1121–1152). Yahya repulsed Bedouin incursions and subdued uprisings by Berber clans, but during his reign theGenoese also raided Béjaïa (1136), and theKingdom of Sicily occupied the settlement ofDjidjelli and destroyed a pleasure palace that had been built there.[11] Tunis, whoseKhurasanid rulers had previously vacillated between recognizing Zirid and Hammadid authority, was annexed in 1128 and controlled by Hammadid governors until 1148.[32]
Yahya tried to establish good relations with the Fatimids in the early 1140s, but ultimately he recognized the Abbasids instead and minted coins inal-Muqtafi's name.[9] In 1144 and 1145, he dispatched Hammadid forces to join the Almoravids in fighting, unsuccessfully, the BerberAlmohads led byAbd al-Mu'min.[11]
In 1145, Abd al-Mu'min conqueredTlemcen andOran. In 1151, he marched against the Hammadids. The Almohads took Algiers in 1152 and captured Béjaïa later the same year, crushing Hammadid forces at the gates of the city.[11] This marked a major military triumph for Abd al-Mu'min.[33] Yahya fled to Constantine, but surrendered several months later.[23] He died in comfortable exile inSalé, Morocco, in 1163.[11][23] Abd al-Mu'minenslaved the women and children of Hammadid loyalists who had fought against him, but did not sack Béjaïa because the city had surrendered.[33]
Some 30 years after the collapse of the Hammadids, the dynasty had a brief revival in 1184, when 'Ali ibn Ghaniya—a member of theBanu Ghaniya branch of the Almoravid dynasty, which had established acorsair kingdom in theBalearic Islands—seized control of Béjaïa, recruited a mixed force of "dispossessed Hammadids,Sanhaja Berbers, and Hilalian tribes" opposed to Almohad rule, and quickly captured Algiers,Miliana, Ashir, and al Qal'a, with the goal of establishing a new Almoravid polity in the Maghreb.[11] Less than a year later, the Almohad had recaptured all the towns.[11] The Banu Ghaniya did retain, through the end of the Almohad period, some influence inTripolitania, southern Tunisia, and the Algerian plains, where Hammadid loyalists numbered among their allies.[11]
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The Hammadid domain stretched across the entirety of the Central Maghreb, comprising the northern expanse of what is now Algeria. At its establishment duringHammad's reign, a pact was forged with his cousinBadis, stipulating that Hammad would retain authority over a substantial swath of the Central Maghreb (Algeria). This encompassed pivotal cities such asM'sila,Achir, andTahert, alongside the territories ofTobna andZab, as well as any lands annexed through his conquests.[34] The kingdom's territories quickly expanded. Following Hammad's death, his son SultanEl Qaid ascended to power, and in 1038, a war erupted against the ruler ofFes. The latter swiftly backtracked and declared submission to the Hammadids.[6]: 41 [3]: 234 Under the reign of SultanBuluggin ibn Muhammad campaigns were conducted in the west to subdue theZenata tribes.[6]: 55 He defeated the Zenata and enteredTlemcen in 1058.[35][36]At the same time, the governor ofBiskra revolted against the Hammadids, but the rebellion was swiftly suppressed, and he was replaced.[4]: 913 [6]: 56 In 1062, Bologhine learned that theAlmoravids had seized control of the Maghreb Al Aqsa (Morocco) and launched a campaign into Morocco, pushing back the Almoravids into the desert.[4]: 353 [6]: 56 He was assassinated by his successor on his return journey nearTessala.[4]: 353
Under the reign ofAl Nacer (1062–1089) the kingdom experienced the peak of its territorial expansion.[37] The influence of the Hammadids extended into Ifriqiya (Tunisia),[6]: 60 as the governors ofSfax andTunis, to whom governance was entrusted to theBanu Khurasan,[32] submitted toAl Nacer.[4]: 354 [4]: 334 The people of Castilia (Tozeur) were notably brought under Hammadid rule.[4]: 354 Shortly after the submission of these cities, Sultan Al Nacer conquered the city of Laribus, nearKef, in 1066 before enteringQayrawan,[6]: 69 [3]: 235 [38] although the latter quickly emancipated itself from Hammadid influence. The cities ofSousse andTripoli also submitted to Al Nacer.[9][10] He also conducted a southern expedition, during which he expelled theIbadi from Sedrata and ended a revolt inOuargla by replacing its governor.[8] His successorAl Mansur later fought the Almoravids in the west,[39] who continued to raid Hammadid territories. He gathered over 20,000 fighters and marched onTlemcen,[6]: 77 which, after a victorious battle against the armies ofIbn Tachufin,[6]: 77 led to an agreement where the boundary between the two kingdoms was set at Tlemcen. In the eastern part of the kingdom, a rebellion broke out but was swiftly quelled byAl Mansour, who managed to recaptureBone from the rebels.[4]: 358 [6]: 75 Few territorial changes occurred after the death of Sultan Al Mansour, notable among them being the capture of the island ofDjerba by the Hammadid fleet under the reign ofAbd Al Aziz,[4]: 362 [3]: 235 as well as the reintegration of theBanu Khurasan ofTunis into the Hammadid kingdom.[4]: 362 During the rule of the final monarch,Yahya, in the eastern regions, according to the author ofSahib Al Majam (fromArabic:صاحب المعجم), the lands of the Hammadid Sultan Yahya extended to the plains ofSig nearOran, marking the boundary between the Hammadids and theAlmoravids.[3]
The governmental structure represented anIslamicabsolute monarchy,[3]: 236 [40] where the head of state held the title ofEmir orSultan[3]: 236 and the governance of theemirate was exclusively within the Hammadid dynasty.[12] They did recognize the spiritual authority of theFatimid Caliphate at first until the arrival of theBanu Hilal tribes, and then theAbbasid Caliphate at different times.[3]: 236 [5]: 183 TheQada (fromArabic:القضاء) orJurisdiction was separated from the administration and derived its rulings and legislative texts from theMaliki school of thought, which was prevalent among the people of theMaghreb andAl-Andalus.[3]: 237 Arabic was the official language in the jurisdiction.[41] Each city had ajudge appointed by the Hammadid Emirs who was responsible for the affairs of Muslims,[12]: 208 including complaints and other matters.[41]: 109
Initially, the Hammadid emirs personally oversaw the administration of the emirate, later delegating this responsibility toviziers based in the capital,[3]: 236 mostly not from the Hammadid dynasty.[12]: 206 [5]: 186 They were given various tasks that included suppressing rebellions such as theBiskra rebellion duringBouloughin's reign and handling diplomatic correspondence with other kingdoms, particularly during Emir El Nacer's time.[6]: 122 They were also tasked with managing both internal and external affairs.[12]: 206 TheBanu Hamdoune (fromArabic:بنو حمدون) family wielded significant influence in the kingdom since EmirBadis' reign.[6]: 96 Among them,Mimoun ibn Hamdoune served as vizier during the tenure of the last Hammadid Emir Yahya, whose authority grew as the Emir focused on hunting and entertainment.[6]: 122 The Hammadid central administration included theDiwan al-Insha (fromArabic:ديوان الإنشاء), headed by asecretary,[6]: 122 whose importance lies in draftingtreaties and agreements.[42] Next to theDiwan al-Insha, the Hammadids had theDiwan al-Bareed (fromArabic:ديوان البريد), as the emir needed to correspond with othersultans,kings, andcaliphs.[43] The communication system was advanced during the era of theemirate, and mountain fire signals were built,[12]: 210 as reflective mirrors were installed in lighthouses to reflect lights visible from a long distance.[6]: 124 Thus, the nearby centers received their signals, and all centers transmitted them accordingly. They could have also used carrier pigeons like theZirids.[6]: 123
Regarding the administration of the kingdom's territories, mostUmal (fromArabic:عمالUmal) (governors) were from the royal family, with their number fluctuating depending on the Sultan.[6]: 123 Each city had its governor appointed by the Hammadid Sultan. Cities like Algiers,Bône,Constantine,Hamza,Achir, andJijel each had an assigned governor.[3]: 236 At its peak under the reign of Al Nacer, the Sultan appointed his brotherKbab, installed inMiliana, to govern the western territories.[6]: 124 He also tasked the Banu Wemanou, aZenata tribe located nearRelizane, with overseeing the western territories of the kingdom.[44] His second brotherRuman was assigned the governorship ofHamza (Bouira). The city ofConstantine was given to his third brotherBalbar, andN'Gaous to his fourth brotherKhazar.[6]: 124 [34]: 622 He also entrusted his sonIbn el Alaa with the governance of Algiers and Mers el Dejaj while his other sonYusuf with that ofAchir.[6]: 124 [34]: 622 Alongside these provinces, there were regions within the kingdom whose governance was assigned to other emirs, such as the region ofTozeur, which was given by Al Nacer toYusuf ibn Makhluf.[6]: 124 During this period,Tunis was under the governance of theBanu Khurasan,[6]: 124 andBiskra under the Banu Ruman and later the Banu Sindi, both subject to Sultan Al Nacer.[3]: 240 The city ofSfax was assigned to Hammu Ibn Malil.[34]: 624 Al Nacer also had a governor inOuargla whose name is not known.[34]: 622 [6]: 124
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Qal'at Beni Hammad, the dynasty's capital, was described by Al-Bakri in the 11th century as a large and powerful military stronghold and a centre of commerce that attracted caravans from all over the Maghreb, Iraq, Syria, Egypt and the Hejaz.[45] 14th-century Arab historian and philosopherIbn Khaldun noted that the abundance of travellers was due to the wealth of resources offered to those interested in sciences, commerce and arts. The Qal'at attracted poets, sages and theologians. It was filled with various richly decorated palaces, caravanserai, gardens and what remained the largest mosque built in North Africa until the twentieth century.[46] The art and architecture of the Hammadids influenced that of the Arabs, Almohads, Almoravids and Normans.[47][48][49][50]
Hammadid emirs constructed five palaces, most of which are now destroyed. Thekeep of the Palace of the Fanal (Qasr al-Manar), however, survives to this day.[11] Aminaret, 82 feet (25 m) in height, is the only remaining part of the ruinedGreat Mosque; the structure bears some resemblance toSeville'sGiralda.[11] The Hammadid mosque is said to have been the largest mosque constructed in North Africa prior to the twentieth century; it has the typical Maghreb-style square minaret.[51] Architecture in Qal'at Bani Hammad featured adornments of "porcelainmosaics of many-coloredfaience, sculpted panels and plaster, enameledterra-cottastalactites; building and pottery ornamentation consisted of geometric designs and stylized floral motifs."[11]
Ibn Hamdis wrote two different poems describing one of the Hammadid palaces which he described as having interior courts of marble that looked as if they had been carpeted with crystal, and he observed that the grounds looked as if they were strewn with fine pearls.[50] His description mentions that the palace had a pool that was bordered by marble lions with water streaming from their mouths; these lions were likely similar tothose of the Alhambra.[50]
In the Qal'at Beni Hammad fragments of stucco were discovered from the Qasr al-Salam and the Qasr al-Manar which may be the oldest fragments ofmuqarnas in the Western Islamic world, dating back to the 11th or 12th century.[49][52]: 133 According toLucien Golvin the fragments of the muqarnas semi-dome at the Qasr al-Salam are the oldest documented remains of a truemuqarnas vault in the Islamic world.[53] However, other scholars of Islamic architecture have questioned or rejected the dating of these fragments or their identification as truemuqarnas.[54][49][55]: 93
Furthermore, the Qal'at buildings are considered to be documented antecedents and precursors to certain developments in Western Islamic art in the 12th century.[49] Plaster capitals that were found at the Qal'at were composed of smooth leaves recurved in their upper part, considered to be an antecedent to the common Almoravid and Almohad forms which are seen in the Great Mosque of Tlemcen or in Tinmel.[49] The framework of a marble basin and a grey marble fragment document the use of multifoil arches with spiral-form impost decoration. The use of this motif at the Qal'at subsequently spread during the times of the Almoravids and became universal in Almohad buildings.[49] The square rooms surrounded by rampant barrel vaults in the Qasr al-Manar have been compared to the Almohad minarets and the Torre Pisana in Palermo which it predates. The Hammadid palaces are also noted to contain the first or one of the first documented use of shadirwan.[56]
The excavations in the Qal'at Beni Hammad also discovered the first reference corpus of Islamic ceramics.[51][verification needed] The production of ceramics in Al-Andalus during the taifa and Almoravid periods reflect a strong and direct Hammadid influence.[50] The technique of luster-painting on pottery was passed from al Qal-at to Béjaïa to Malaga, and black painted and incised earthenware objects as well as bronze sculptures from the Zirids most likely influenced similar objects inAndalusia.[50] Ceramic architectural decorations had never played such a large role in the Islamic world until the Hammadids, and from there it subsequently spread to Al-Andalus and Morocco where it became a hallmark for the architecture of these countries, and it also spread throughout Europe.[57]
Luster-painted andglazed ceramic decoration in a wide variety of shapes and forms were a feature in theIslamic architecture of Hammadid-era Béjaïa.[58] Al-Nasir reputedly negotiated withPope Gregory VII for the services of Italian masons and other skilled craftsmen for the construction of Béjaïa.[11] Although Béjaïa is mostly in ruins, a large sea gate reportedly survives.[59] The Bab al-Bahr (gate of the sea) was built during an-Nasirs reign, along with five other gates, to protect the town. It is now a ruin consisted of a pointed arch constructed with solid bricks.[60] The Bab al-Bunud was also built in Béjaïa during an-Nasirs reign with hexagonal towers and two ogival-arch gates.[61]
In Béjaïa drawings of a facade of two palaces with ground plans by one of the Hammadids have been preserved and provide an insight into palatial architecture of the time period of the Hammadids. The first palace consisted of a huge domed hall flanked by smaller domed towers and chambers. The second palace, called al-Kukab, as said to have been where the Bordj Moussa is today. al-Kukab consisted of a large centred hall with a gabled roof flanked by side aisles and two small towers.[62]
TheGreat Mosque of Constantine was originally constructed by the Hammadids in the 12th century and was built on the ruins of a Roman temple.[citation needed]
The following is a list of Hammadid rulers, starting at Hammadid independence from the Zirids in 1015 and ending with the Almohad conquest in 1152:[63]
| Hammadid Emirs | |
| Emir | Reign |
|---|---|
| ʿHammad ibn Buluggin | 1015 – 1028 |
| Qaid ibn Hammad ibn Buluggin | 1028 – 1054 |
| Muhsin ibn Qaid | 1054 – 1055 |
| Buluggin ibn Muhammad ibn Hammad | 1055 – 1062 |
| An-Nasir ibn Alnas | 1062 – 1088 |
| Al-Mansur ibn al-Nasir | 1088 – 1105 |
| Badis ibn Mansur | 1105 |
| ʿAbd al-Aziz ibn Mansur | 1105 – 1121 |
| Yahya ibn Abd al-Aziz | 1121 – 1152 |
| End of the Emirate | |
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
