Hama (Arabic:حَمَاةḤamāh,[ħaˈmaː]) is a city on the banks of theOrontes River in west-centralSyria. It is located 213 kilometres (132 mi) north ofDamascus and 46 km (29 mi) north ofHoms. It is the provincial capital of theHama Governorate. With a population of 996,000 (2023 census), Hama is one of thefour largest cities in Syria, withDamascus,Aleppo andHoms, Also notably being the only Governorate with no land borders with any foreign countries, Hama is also known for itsCheese-making tradition, notably reflected in a signature local dessertHalawet el Jibn.[2][3]
The city is renowned forits seventeen norias used for watering the gardens, Which are claimed to date back to 1100 BC. Though historically used forirrigation, thenorias are used purely for show today and currently serve no direct purpose, being used as a tourist attraction and a symbol of the city.
The stratigraphy is very generalized, which makes detailed comparison to other sites difficult. Level M (6 m or 20 ft thick) contained both white ware (lime-plaster) and true pottery. It may be contemporary withRas Shamra V (6000–5000 BC).
Remains from theChalcolithic period have been uncovered by Danish archaeologists on the mount on which the former citadel once stood.[4] The excavation took place between 1931 and 1938 under the direction of Harald Ingholt. The overlying level L dates to the ChalcolithicHalaf culture.
Although the town appears to be unmentioned incuneiform sources before the first millennium BC,[5] the site appears to have been prosperous around 1500 BC, when it was presumably anAmorite dependency ofMitanni, an empire along theEuphrates in northeastern Syria.[4]
By around 1350 BC, Mitanni was overthrown by theHittites, who controlled all of northern Syria.
In the south, the Hittites were in conflict with the Egyptians. Hamath became an important urban center. The conflict culminated in the famousBattle of Kadesh againstAncient Egypt underRamesses II nearHoms in 1285 BC.
When the Assyrian kingShalmaneser III (858–824 BC) conquered the north ofAramea, he reached Hamath (Assyrian:Amat orHamata)[5] in 853 BC; this marks the beginning of Assyrian inscriptions relating to the kingdom.[8]Irhuleni of Hamath andHadadezer ofAram-Damascus (biblical "Bar-Hadad") led a coalition ofAramean cities against the encroaching Assyrian armies. According to Assyrian sources, they were confronted by 4,000 chariots, 2,000 horsemen, 62,000-foot-soldiers and 1,000 Arab camel-riders in theBattle of Qarqar. The attested win for the Assyrians seems to have actually been more of a draw, although Shalmaneser III continued on to the shore and even took a ship to open sea. In the following years, Shalmaneser III failed to conquer Hamath or Aram-Damascus. After the death of Shalmaneser III, the former allies Hamath and Aram-Damascus fell out, and Aram-Damascus seems to have taken over some of Hamath's territory.
An Aramaic inscription ofZakkur, dual king of Hamath andLuhuti, tells of an attack by a coalition includingSam'al underBen-Hadad III, son ofHazael, king of Aram-Damascus. Zakir was besieged in his fortress ofHazrak, but saved by intervention of the GodBaalshamin. Later on, the state ofSam'al came to rule both Hamath and Aram.[citation needed]
In 743 BC,Tiglath-Pileser III took a number of towns in the territory of Hamath, distributed the territories among his generals, andforcibly removed 1,223 selected inhabitants to the valley of the UpperTigris; he exacted tribute from Hamath's king, Eni-Ilu (Eniel).
In 738 BC, Hamath is listed among the cities again conquered by Assyrian troops. Over 30,000 natives were deported toUllaba (located inUrartu)[9] and replaced with captives from theZagros Mountains.[5]
Styling himself the "Destroyer of Hamath,"Sargon II razed the city c. 720 BC,[10] recolonized it with 6300 Assyrians and removed its king to be flayed alive in Assyria.[5] He also carried off toNimrud the ivory-adorned furnishings of its kings.[11]
Displaced persons from Hamath subsequently comprised an important part of the multi-ethnic Aramaean community atElephantine and Syene (nowAswan) in Egypt starting in 700 BCE, where alongside similarly displaced Jews they produced a large corpus of materials inImperial Aramaic known as theElephantine papyri and ostraca.[12]
In 539 BC,Cyrus the Great, King ofAchaemenid Empire, took Syria as part of his empire, to be known asEber-Nari. In July 522 BC,Cambyses II died at a location called Agbatana, which is most likely the modern city of Hama.[14]
In the second half of the 4th century BC the modern region of Syria came under the influence of Greco-Roman culture, following long lasting semitic and Persian cultures.Alexander the Great's campaign from 334 to 323 BC brought Syria underHellenic rule. Since the country lay on the trade routes from Asia to Greece, Hama and many other Syrian cities again grew rich through trade. After the death of Alexander the Great his Near East conquests were divided between his generals, andSeleucus Nicator became ruler of Syria and the founder of theSeleucid dynasty. Under the Seleucids there was a revival in the fortunes of Hama. The Aramaeans were allowed to return to the city, which was renamedEpiphaneia[5] (Ancient Greek:Ἐπιφάνεια),[15] after the Seleucid EmperorAntiochus IV Epiphanes. Seleucid rule began to decline, however, in the next two centuries, and Arab dynasties began to gain control of cities in this part of Syria, including Hama.[16]
TheRomans took over original settlements such asHama and made them their own. They met little resistance when they invaded Syria underPompey and annexed it in 64 BC, whereupon Hama became part of theRoman province of Syria, ruled from Rome by a proconsul. Hama was an important city during the Greek and Roman periods, but very little archaeological evidence remains.[16] As Syria became part of the Roman Empire, five hundred Hamian archers, known as "Cohors Prima Hamiorum Sagittaria", were stationed atMagnis onHadrian's Wall in northernBritain starting from AD 120. The same unit or another one was later renamed to "Numerus Syrorum Saggitariorum" and located atDerventio Brigantum (Malton).[17] The garrison unit was transferred toBar Hill Fort on theAntonine Wall in Scotland in AD 142–157, then back to Magnis in AD 163–166, during the early reign ofMarcus Aurelius. They might have also stationed atHousesteads, as a tombstone of an archer was located there. However, the cohort's presence in Britain was proven by military diplomas, found inStannington (AD 122) andRavenglass (AD 124), in addition to altars dedicated to Syrian Goddesses discovered atCatterick.[18][19]
In AD 330, the capital of the Roman Empire was moved toByzantium, and the city continued to prosper. InByzantine days, Hama was known asEmath orEmathoùs (Εμαθούς inGreek). Roman rule from Byzantium meant theChristian religion was strengthened throughout the Near East, and churches were built in Hama and other cities. The Byzantine historianJohn of Epiphania was born in Hama in the 6th century.[16]
An alley in old Hama
Two main personalities from Hama were documented during Greek-Roman times. The first is Eustathius of Epiphaneia (Ancient Greek:Εὐστάθιος Ἐπιφανεύς), who was a Greek historian but all his works were lost. His most famous work was the "Brief Chronicle" (Ancient Greek:Χρονικὴν ἐπιτομὴν).[20] The second personality isEuphrates the Stoic, who was from Epiphaneia according toStephanus of Byzantium.[15]
Hama was conquered by Muslim forces underAbu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah in 638 or 639, during theMuslim conquest of Syria. The town thereafter regained its ancient name and has since retained it.[21] Little is known about Hama during the early Muslim period. After its capitulation to the Muslims, it became administratively part ofJund Hims (the military district ofHoms), remaining as such through the 10th century. DuringUmayyad rule (661–750), it contained acongregational mosque, likely erected on the remains of a Byzantine-era church, parts of which were utilized in the mosque's construction.[22]
In 944, theHamdanids underSayf al-Dawla captured the northern Syrian city ofAleppo and by the following year expanded their control to Jund Hims.[23] Hama was thus incorporated into the Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo.[22] (Writing in 985, theJerusalemite geographeral-Muqaddasi noted the city had become a part ofJund Qinnasrin (the military district of northern Syria);[24] thejunds had become nominal administrative divisions by this point). Hama remained in the orbit of Aleppo until the 12th century.[21][22] These were considered the 'dark years' of Hama as the local rulers of northern and southern Syria struggled for dominance in the region. The Byzantines under emperorNicephorus Phocas raided the town in 968 and burned theGreat Mosque. By the 11th century, theFatimids gained suzerainty over northern Syria and during this period, the Aleppo-basedMirdasids sacked Hama.[21] ThePersian geographerNasir Khusraw noted in 1047 that Hama was "well populated" and stood on the banks of the Orontes River.[25]
Nur al-Din MosqueThe gate in the old city of Hama, Mamluk architecture
TheCrusaderTancred, Prince of Galilee, took Hama in 1108,[3] but in 1114 the Crusaders lost it definitively to theSeljuks,[21] during the reign ofToghtekin, atabeg of Damascus. By 1154, theZengid ruler of Aleppo,Nur al-Din conquered Damascus and thus brought Muslim Syria, including Hama, under his control (the coastal regions were under Crusader rule). In1157 two earthquakes cumulatively shattered the city and caused immense damage to the neighboring towns ofMaarrat al-Numan,Shaizar andKafartab. The first earthquake, on 13 July, left Hama partly in ruins and repairs were undertaken by Nur al-Din to the city's walls in early August to prevent Crusader forces from taking advantage of its damaged state.[26] The more severe earthquake, on 12 August, collapsed most of the town, its fortress and citadel, and all its large residences, which were clustered around the Orontes, killing most of Hama's inhabitants.[27] Afterward, the citadel walls and the Hassanayn Mosque were rebuilt; a surviving inscription on a small mosque south of the citadel notes that structure was rebuilt after its destruction in the 1157 earthquake.[28] In 1172, Nur al-Din built the city's currentGreat Mosque with a tall, squareminaret.[29]
In 1175, Hama was taken from the Zengids bySaladin. He granted the city to his nephew,al-Muzaffar Umar, four years later, putting it under the rule of hisAyyubid family. This ushered in an era of stability and prosperity in Hama as the Ayyubids ruled it almost continuously until 1342.[21] GeographerYaqut al-Hamawi, who was born in Hama, described it in 1225 as a large town surrounded by a strongly built wall.[30] Hama was sacked by theMongols in 1260, as were most other Syrian cities, but the Mongols weredefeated that same year and then again in 1303 by theMamluks who succeeded the Ayyubids as rulers of the region.[16] Hama briefly passed to Mamluk control in 1299 after the death of governor al-Mansur Mahmoud II. However, unlike other former Ayyubid cities, the Mamluks reinstated Ayyubid rule in Hama by makingAbu al-Fida, the historian and geographer, governor of the city and he reigned from 1310 to 1332.[21] He described his city as "very ancient... mentioned in the book of theIsraelites. It is one of the pleasantest places in Syria."[31] After his death, he was succeeded by his sonal-Afdal Muhammad who eventually lost Mamluk favor and was deposed. Thus, Hama came under direct Mamluk control.[21]
Hama grew prosperous during the Ayyubid period, as well as the Mamluk period. It gradually expanded to both banks of the Orontes River, with the suburb on the right bank being connected to the town proper by a newly built bridge. The town on the left bank was divided into upper and lower parts, each of which was surrounded by a wall. The city was filled with palaces, markets, mosques,madrasas, and a hospital, and over thirty different sizednorias (water-wheels). In addition, there stood a massive citadel in Hama.[21] Moreover, a special aqueduct brought drinking water to Hama from the neighboring town ofSalamiyah.[21]
Ibn Battuta visited Hama in 1335 and remarked that the Orontes River made the city "pleasant to live in, with its many gardens full of trees and fruits." He also speaks of a large suburb called al-Mansuriyyah (named after an Ayyubid emir) that contained "a fine market, a mosque, and bathes."[31] In 1400,Timurlane took Hama, along with nearbyHoms andBaalbek.[32]
The prosperous period of Mamluk rule came to an end in 1516, when theOttoman Turks conquered Syria from the Mamluks after defeating them at theBattle of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo. Hama, and the rest of Syria, came under Ottoman rule fromConstantinople.[33] Under the Ottomans, Hama gradually became more important in the administrative structure of the region. It was first made capital of one of theliwas ("districts") of theeyalet ("province") ofTripoli.[34] Hama once again became an important center for trade routes running east from theMediterranean coast into Asia. A number ofkhans ("caravansaries") were built in the city, like Khan Rustum Pasha which dates from 1556.[33] The governor of Hama was tasked in 1692 with settlingTurkoman nomads in the Hama-Homs region under the aegis of the Ottoman Empire's tribal settlement program.[35]
Then in the 18th century, it became a part of the holdings of the governor of Damascus.[34] The governors of Damascus at this time were the Azems, who also ruled other parts of Syria, for the Ottomans. They erected sumptuous residences in Hama, including theAzem Palace and Khan As'ad Pasha which were built byAs'ad Pasha al-Azem, who governed Hama for a number of years until 1742.[33] By then, there were 14 caravansaries in the city, mostly used for the storage and distribution of seeds, cotton, wool, and other commodities.[36] After the passing of the Vilayet Law in 1864, Hama became the capital of the Sanjak of Hama (gaining the city more administrative powers), part of the largervilayet of Sham.[34]
Ottoman rule ended in 1918, after their defeat inWorld War I to theAllied Forces. Hama was made part of theFrench Mandate of Syria. By then, Hama had developed into what it has remained: a medium-sized provincial town, important as the market for an agricultural area abundant in cereals, but also cotton and sugar beets. It gained notoriety as the center of large estates worked by peasants and dominated by a few magnate families. The1925 Hama uprising occurred in the city during theGreat Syrian Revolt against the French.
During the French Mandate, the district of Hama contained within its bounds the municipality of Hama and 114 villages. By an estimate in 1930, only four of these villages were owned outright by local cultivators, while sharing ownership of two villages with a notable family. Thus, the hinterland was owned by landowning elites.[37] Starting in the late 1940s, significant class conflict erupted as agricultural workers sought reform in Hama.
Syria gained full independence from France in 1946.Akram al-Hawrani, a member of an impoverished notable family in Hama, began to agitate for land reform and better social conditions. He made Hama the base of hisArab Socialist Party, which later merged with another socialist party, theBa'ath. This party's ascent to power in 1963 signalled the end of power for the landowning elite.
The political insurgency by Sunni Islamic groups, particularly theMuslim Brotherhood, occurred in the city, which was reputed as a stronghold of conservative Sunni Islam. As early as the spring of 1964, Hama became the epicentre of anuprising by conservative forces, encouraged by speeches from mosque preachers, denouncing the policies of the Ba'ath. The Syrian government sent tanks and troops into the quarters of Hama's old city to put down the insurrection.[37]
In the early 1980s, Hama had emerged as a major source of opposition to the Ba'ath government during the Sunni armedIslamist uprising, which had begun in 1976. The city was a focal point for bloody events in the1981 massacre and the most notable1982 Hama massacre.[38] The most serious insurrection of the Syrian Islamist uprising happened in Hama during February 1982, when Government forces, led by the president's brother,Rifaat al-Assad, quelled the revolt in Hama with very harsh means.[39] Tanks and artillery shelled the neighbourhoods held by the insurgents indiscriminately, and government forces are alleged to have executed thousands of prisoners and civilian residents after subduing the revolt, which became known as the Hama massacre. The story was suppressed and regarded as highly sensitive inBa'athist Syria.[40] The Hama massacre led to the military term "Hama Rules" meaning the complete large-scale destruction of a military objective or target.[41]
The city was the site of one of the largest protest movements during the Syrian uprising. However, there was minimal armed conflict-mostly in the early stages of armed uprising-and the city remained under the control of the regular army for most of the war.
Its climate is classified assemi-arid (BSk) inKöppen-Geiger system.[44] Hama's inland location ensures that it receives no softening coastal influences and breezes from theMediterranean Sea. As a result, the city has a much hotter and drier climate than nearbyHoms.
Climate data for Hama (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1956–2004)
According to Josiah C. Russel, during the 12th century, Hama had a population of 6,750.[48] James Reilly accounts the historical population as: 1812– 30,000 (Burckhardt) 1830– 20,000 (Robinson) 1839– 30–44,000 (Bowring) 1850– 30,000 (Porter) 1862– 10–12,000 (Guys) 1880– 27,656 (Parliamentary Papers) 1901– 60,000 (Parliamentary Papers) 1902–1907 80,000 (Trade Reports) 1906– 40,000 (al-Sabuni) 1909– 60,000 (Trade Reports)[49]In 1932, while Hama was under the French Mandate, there were approximately 50,000 residents. In the 1960 census, there were 110,000 inhabitants. The population continued to rise, reaching 180,000 in 1978 and 273,000 in 1994.[50] The infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births in theHama Governorate was 99.4.[51] A 2005 estimate had Hama's population at around 325,000 inhabitants.[52]
Most of the residents areSunni Muslims (including mostlyArabs,Kurds, andTurkmen), although some districts of the city are exclusively Christian.[52] Hama is reputed to be the most conservative Sunni Muslim city in Syria since French Mandate times. During that period there was an old saying reflecting this characteristic: "In Damascus, it takes only three men to make a political demonstration, while in Hama it takes only three men to get the town to pray."[37] The Christian population mostly adheres to theGreek Orthodox Church or theSyriac Orthodox Church.[53]
The Greek Orthodox Church has a prelacy in Hama under thePatriarch of Antioch.[53] Hama is still a Roman Catholictitular see (referred to as "Hamath" or Amath"),suffragan ofApamea. It is as "Epiphania" that it is best known in ecclesiastical documents.Lequien mentions nine Greek bishops of Epiphania.[54] The first of them, whom he calls Mauritius, is the Manikeios whose signature appears in theFirst Council of Nicaea.[55] Currently, it has two Catholic archbishops, aGreek Melkite and a Syrian, the former residing atLabroud, the latter at Homs, reuniting the titles ofHoms (Emesus) and Hamah.[56]
Titular bishopric of the Roman Church
Vartan Hunanian (28 Jan 1675 - 24 October 1681)[57]
Hama's most famous attractions are the 17Norias of Hama (Arabic:نواعير حماة), dating back to theByzantine times. Fed by theOrontes river, they are up to 20 metres (66 ft) in diameter. The largestnorias are theal-Mamunye (1453) and theal-Muhammediye (14th century). Originally they were used to route water into aqueducts, which led into the town and the neighbouring agricultural areas.
Other sights include:
Hama museum, housed in an 18th-century Ottoman governor's residence (Azem Palace), exhibiting remains of a Roman mosaic fromMaryamin (4th century AD)
^"Hamath".Jewish Encyclopedia. Jewishencyclopedia.com.Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved4 February 2013.
^Hamath's history from the inscriptions was encapsulated by George L. Robinson, "The Entrance of Hamath"The Biblical World32.1 (July 1908:7–18), in discussing the topography evoked by the Biblical phrase "the entrance of Hamath".
^"Hamath Wrecked to Terrify Small Opponents of Assyria"The Science News-Letter. 39:13 (29 March 1941:205–206.)
^The ivories were found there by Layard. One of the ivory panels found at "Fort Shalmaneser" is inscribed "Hamath." (R. D. Barnett, "Hamath and Nimrud: Shell Fragments from Hamath and the Provenance of the Nimrud Ivories."Iraq. 25:1. [Spring 1963:81–85.])
^Karel van der Toorn (24 September 2019).Becoming Diaspora Jews: Behind the Story of Elephantine. Yale University Press. pp. 54–59.ISBN978-0-300-24949-1.OCLC1117508771.In the fifth century BCE, the Persian army in southern Egypt employed Arameans from Syria, Arameans from Babylonia, and Jews. The latter identified themselves as Arameans too. Their language was Aramaic, and their literary and religious culture bore an Aramean slant. [...] One of the two groups that constituted the Aramean colony of Syene had its roots in Hamath. This is the Bethel group.
^"Klimatafel von Hama / Syrien"(PDF).Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst.Archived(PDF) from the original on 12 April 2022. Retrieved26 April 2017.
Bruce, John Collingwood (1867).The Roman Wall: a historical, topographical, and descriptive account of the barrier of the lower isthmus, extending from the Tyne to the Solway, etc. With plates and maps. Longmans & Company..
Dandamayev, Muhammad A. (1990)."Cambyses II".Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7. pp. 726–729.Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved16 February 2021.
Grainger, John D. (2016).Syria: An Outline History. Pen and Sword.ISBN9781473860834.
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