Hafsid dynasty الحفصيون | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1229–1574 | |||||||||||||||||
 Realm of the Hafsid dynasty in 1400 (orange) | |||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Tunis | ||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Arabic,Berber | ||||||||||||||||
| Religion | |||||||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||
| Sultan andCaliph | |||||||||||||||||
• 1229–1249 | Abu Zakariya | ||||||||||||||||
• 1574 | Muhammad VI | ||||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||||
• Established | 1229 | ||||||||||||||||
| 1535 | |||||||||||||||||
| 1574 | |||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||
| Today part of | |||||||||||||||||
TheHafsid dynasty (Arabic:الحفصيون,romanized: al-Ḥafṣiyūn) was aSunni Muslim dynasty ofBerber descent[2] that ruledIfriqiya (modern day Tunisia, western Libya, and eastern Algeria) from 1229 to 1574. The dynasty was founded byAbu Zakariya Yahya, who was initially appointed governor of the region by theAlmohad caliph before declaring his independence.
Under the reigns of Abu Zakariya and his successor,al-Mustansir (r. 1249–1277), the Hafsids consolidated and expanded their power, withTunis as their capital. After al-Mustansir's death, internal conflicts resulted in a division between an eastern branch of the dynasty ruling from Tunis and awestern branch ruling fromBéjaïa andConsantine.[3] A reunification took place underAbu Yahya Abu Bakr II (r. 1318–1346), but his death was followed by another crisis during which theMarinids, based in present-day Morocco, invaded briefly. Eventually, unity was re-established byAbu al-Abbas Ahmad II (r. 1370–1394), who inaugurated the apogee of Hafsid power and influence across the region, which continued underAbu Faris Abd al-Aziz II (r. 1394–1434) andAbu 'Amr 'Uthman (r. 1435–1488). After this, their power gradually declined. During the 16th century, as theOttoman Empire encroached on the region, the Hafsids were propped up bySpain until the finalOttoman conquest of Tunis in 1574 put an end to their reign.[3]
The Hafsid period in Ifriqiya was also marked by important cultural and intellectual activity, encouraged in part by Abu Zakariya Yahya's decision to welcomeAndalusi migrants and refugees. The medieval historian,Ibn Khaldun, was born in Tunis during this time.Hafsid architectural patronage included, among other things, the firstmadrasas in theMaghreb.[3]
The Hafsids were ofBerber descent,[2] although to further legitimize their rule, they claimedArab ancestry from the secondRashidun caliphOmar.[4] The ancestor of the dynasty (from whom their name is derived), wasAbu Hafs Umar ibn Yahya al-Hintati, a Berber from theHintata tribal confederation,[5] which belonged to the greaterMasmuda confederation in present-day Morocco.[6] He was a member of theCouncil of Ten, one of the highestAlmohad political bodies, and a close companion ofIbn Tumart, the Almohad movement's founder.[5]
The son of Abu Hafs,Abu Muhammad Abd al-Wahid ibn Abi Hafs, was appointed by the Almohad caliphMuhammad al-Nasir as governor ofIfriqiya (generally present-dayTunisia, easternAlgeria, and westernLibya) where he ruled from 1207 to 1221.[7] He was established inTunis, which the Almohads had chosen as the province's administrative capital.[8]: 133 His appointment came in the wake of the defeat ofYahya Ibn Ghaniya, who had launched aserious attack against Almohad authority in the region. Abu Muhammad Abd al-Wahid was ultimately quite effective in keeping order. The caliph had granted him a significant degree of autonomy in governing, partly to help persuade him to accept this difficult position in the first place. This laid the groundwork for a future Hafsid state.[9]: 101, 119
When Abu Muhammad Abd al-Wahid died in 1221, the Almohad chiefs in Ifriqiya initially elected his son, Abu Zayd Abd al-Rahman, as the next governor. However, the Almohad caliph in Marrakesh,Yusuf II al-Mustansir, had not consented to this and was able to overrule this and appoint his own relative to the position.[9]: 119 As Almohad authority weakened over the following years, local opposition to the Almohad governor compelled the Almohad caliphAbdallah al-Adil to appoint another Hafsid family member to the post in 1226. He chose Abu Muhammad Abdallah, a grandson of Abu Hafs. Abu Muhammad Abdallah's brother,Abu Zakariya Yahya, arrived in Tunis before him and began to reestablish order.[9]: 119 Whenal-Ma'mun, the brother of Abdallah al-Adil, rebelled against the latter's authority fromal-Andalus, Abu Zakariya sided with him, whereas Abu Muhammad Abdallah remained loyal to the caliph in Marrakesh. Al-Ma'mun's eventual victory resulted in Abu Zakariya being placed in charge of Ifriqiya in 1228.[9]: 119
A year later, in 1229, al-Ma'mun officially renouncedAlmohad doctrine. Abu Zakariya used this as a pretext to repudiate his authority and to declare himself independent. By this point, Al-Ma'mun did not have the means to stop him or to reassert control over Ifriqiya.[9]: 119 Initially, Abu Zakariya had his name mentioned in thekhutba (the sermon duringFriday prayer) with the title of amir, but in 1236 or 1237 he began to adopt thecaliphal title ofAmir al-Mu'minin, in direct challenge to the Almohad caliph in Marrakesh.[9]: 119 He also initially organized the state around the Almohad elites, portraying his regime as a continuation of the Almohad system and placing Hafsid family members and Almohadshaykhs (tribal chiefs) in most important positions. He created the post ofshaykh al-muwahhidin ('Chief of the Almohads'), often held by a Hafsid family member, who served as the ruler's deputy and to whom all the Almohad chiefs answered.[9]: 126–127
Abu Zakariya annexedConstantine (Qusantina) andBéjaïa (Bijaya) in 1230.[7] In 1234, he chased Yahya Ibn Ghaniya out of the countryside south of Constantine in 1234, ending this lingering threat.[7] In 1235 he capturedAlgiers and then established his authority as far as theChelif River to the west.[7] In the following years he subdued various rural tribes, such as theHawwara, but allowed some of the Banu Tujin tribes in the central Maghreb to govern themselves as small vassal states that secured his western borders.[7] He welcomed many refugees and immigrants from al-Andalus who were fleeing the advance of theReconquista. He appointed some of them to important political positions and recruited Andalusi military regiments as a way of counteracting the power and influence of traditional Almohad elites.[3]
For a time, theNasrid ruler ofGranada in al-Andalus,Ibn al-Ahmar, briefly acknowledged Abu Zakariya's suzerainty in an attempt to enlist his help against Christian forces. Ultimately, Hafsid intervention on theIberian Peninsula was limited to sending a fleet to MuslimValencia's aid in 1238.[9]: 119–120 Abu Zakariya showed more interest in trying to recreate some of the former authority of the Almohads over the Maghreb and he made attempts to extend his control further west. In 1242, he capturedTlemcen from theZayyanids, but the Zayyanid leaderYaghmurasan evaded him. The two leaders eventually came to an agreement, with Yaghmurasan continuing to rule in Tlemcen but agreeing to formally recognize Abu Zakariya's authority.[9]: 120 That same year,Sijilmasa andCeuta (Sabta) also recognized his authority,[9]: 120 though these would later fall under Marinid control.[9]: 107, 136 This policy of western expansion ended with Abu Zakariya's death (1249).[9]: 120
His successor,Muhammad I al-Mustansir (r. 1249–1277), focused on consolidating the Hafsid state in Ifriqiya. The state benefited from expanding trade with both Europe and theSudan region (south of the Sahara).[9]: 120–121 In the western Maghreb (present-day Morocco), the Marinids, who had not yet fully established their rule in the region, formally recognized his authority in 1258.[9]: 120 With thefall of Baghdad, the home of theAbbasid caliphs, that same year, the Hafsids were briefly seen as the most important rulers of the Muslim world. TheSharif of Mecca,Abu Numayy, temporarily recognized him as caliph in 1259.[9]: 120 [10]: 97
It was during his reign that the failedEighth Crusade took place, led byLouis IX of France. After landing atCarthage, Louis died of dysentery in the middle of his army decimated by disease in 1270.
After al-Mustansir's death in 1277, the Hafsids were riven by internal conflict, aggravated by interference fromAragon.[9]: 123 This resulted in a split in the dynasty: one branch ruled from Tunis in the east andanother branch ruled fromBéjaïa (Bijaya) andConstantine (Qusantina) in the west. This division continued to characterize Hafsid politics for much of its history, with the balance of power sometimes shifting from one side to another and with intermittent successes at unifying both branches under one rule.[3] After the initial split, the first successful reunification took place underAbu Yahya Abu Bakr II (r. 1318–1346), the ruler of the western branch who managed to take control of Tunis.[3]
From around the end of the 13th century onward, the Hafsids could no longer rely on the Almohad legacy to legitimize their rule. Over the course of the 13th century, the incorporation of Andalusi migrants into both the state and the army, as well as the employ of European Christian mercenaries, left the old Almohad elites as a smaller faction within the ruling system who caused instability rather than providing it. Abu Yahya Abu Bakr II's predecessor in Tunis,Abu Zakariya Ibn al-Lihyani (r. 1311–1317), signalled a further break with the Almohad past by having the name of Ibn Tumart (the Almohad founding figure) dropped from the Fridaykhutba.[9]: 126–127
Abu Yahya Abu Bakr's rule remained unstable and he resorted to making alliances with the Zayyanids and Marinids to the west.[3] His agreement with the Marinid ruler,Abu al-Hasan (r. 1331–1348), included a marriage to his sister, who subsequently died during afailed Marinid expedition in Spain, followed by another marriage to his daughter.[9]: 110 When Abu Yahya Abu Bakr died in 1346, his intended heir, Abu'l Abbas, was killed in Tunis by his brother, Umar, who seized power. Abu'l Abbas's chamberlain, Abu Muhammad Abdallah ibn Tafrajin, sent a letter to Abu al-Hasan urging him to intervene and invade Ifriqiya. Abu al-Hasan, having alreadyconquered Tlemcen in 1337, seized the opportunity to further expand. He conquered Tunis in 1347 and the Hafsid governors in the region accepted his authority.[9]: 110
The invasion, however, disturbed the balance of power in favour of the Bedouin Arab tribes, whom the Marinids were unable to sway.[9]: 111, 128 Ibn Tafrajin, who had hoped to be placed in power by the Marinids, fled to Egypt. The situation in Ifriqiya devolved into further disorder and internal rivalries, and Abu al-Hasan was forced to return west in 1349, partly to deal with acoup d'état by his son,Abu Inan. Ibn Tafrajin returned to Ifriqiya and, with Bedouin support, installed another young son of Abu Yahya Abu Bakr, Abu Ishaq, as ruler.[9]: 111, 128 Abu Inan, having successfully taken the throne from his father, invaded Ifriqiya again and captured Tunis in August 1357, but he was soon forced by his own troops to abandon the region. He returned west, retaining control only of Constantine and the cities of the central Maghreb for a time.[9]: 111
During the mid-14th century, plague epidemics brought to Ifriqiya from Sicily caused a considerable fall in population, further weakening the Hafsid realm. To stop raids from southern tribes during plague epidemics, the Hafsids turned to theBanu Hilal to protect their rural population.[11]: 37
After the Marinid threat ended, attempts to reunify the Hafsids failed untilAbu al-Abbas Ahmad II (r. 1370–1394), the emir of Béjaïa and Constantine, conquered Tunis in 1370.[3] A capable ruler and military leader, he reestablished Hafsid authority on stronger terms, centralizing power to a greater extent than ever before. Meanwhile, the Zayyanids and Marinids were occupied by internal matters.[3] The Almohad-based institutions of the state, such as the office ofshaykh al-muwahhidin, also lost any remaining importance after this time.[9]: 132
Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II's reign (r. 1394–1434) was considered the apogee of Hafsid power and prosperity by contemporary writers. He further consolidated his dynasty's power in Ifriqiya and extended his influence over the Zayyanids and Marinids (and theWattasids who succeeded the latter).[3]
The beginning of his reign was not easy since the cities of the south revolted against him. However, the new sultan quickly regained control: he reoccupiedTozeur (1404),Gafsa (1401), andBiskra (1402), subdued tribal power in the regions of Constantine and Béjaïa (1397–1402), and appointed governors of these regions to be elected officers.[clarification needed] He also intervened against his western and eastern neighbors. He annexedTripoli (1401) andAlgiers (1410–1411).[13] In 1424, hedefeated the Zayyanid sultan, Abu Malik Abd al-Wahid, and placed another Zayyanid, Abu Abdallah Muhammad IV, on the throne of Tlemcen as his vassal.[14][15] In 1428, the latter became embroiled in another war with Abu Malik Abd al-Wahid – who had now won his own support from the Hafsids – and was eventually replaced by yet another Zayyanid relative with Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz's help in 1431.[15] Around the same time (probably in 1426), Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz also helped to installAbd al-Haqq II on the Marinid throne in Fez – under the regency ofAbu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi – and thus obtained from him a recognition of Hafsid suzerainty.[16]
In 1429, the Hafsidsattacked the island of Malta and took 3000 slaves, although they did not conquer the island.[17]Kaid Ridavan was the military leader during the attack.[18] The profits were used for a great building programme and to support art and culture. However, piracy also provoked retaliation from the Christians, which several times launched attacks and crusades against Hafsid coastal cities such as theBarbary crusade (1390), theBona crusade (1399) and the capture ofDjerba in 1423.[citation needed]
Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II died in 1434 during another expedition against Tlemcen.[3] His successor,Abu 'Amr 'Uthman, had the longest reign of any Hafsid (r. 1435–1488). He largely continued the strong rule of his predecessors, but he had to contend with greater challenges, including internal politics, restive Bedouin tribes in the south, and the Wattasids in the west.[3]
Uthman conqueredTripolitania in 1458 and appointed a governor inOuargla in 1463.[19] He led two expeditions to Tlemcen in 1462 and 1466 and made the Zayyanids his vassals, while the Wattasid state in Morocco also formally accepted his authority. The entire Maghreb was thus briefly under Hafsid suzerainty.[20][9]: 132
In the 16th century, the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and theOttoman Empire-supportedCorsairs. The Ottomansconquered Tunis in 1534 and held it for one year, driving out the Hafsid rulerMoulay Hassan. A year later the King of Spain and Holy Roman EmperorCharles V seized Tunis,drove the Ottomans out and restored Muley Hassan as a Habsburg tributary.[21] Due to the Ottoman threat, the Hafsids were vassals of Spain after 1535. The Ottomans again conquered Tunis in 1569 and held it for four years.Don Juan of Austriarecaptured it in 1573. The Ottomansreconquered Tunis in 1574, andMuhammad VI, the last Caliph of the Hafsids, was brought toConstantinople and was subsequently executed due to his collaboration with Spain and the desire of the Ottoman Sultan to take the title ofCaliph as he now controlled Mecca and Medina.[citation needed]
The demographics of Ifriqiya changed considerably during the Hafsid period and in the period leading up to it. The large-scaleinflux of Arab Bedouin tribes into the countryside during the preceding centuries promoted theArabization of Ifriqiya. Aside from some relatively isolated region such asDjerba and theNafusa Mountains, whereBerber languages continued to be spoken, nearly all of Ifriqiya became fully Arabized during this era.[20]: 151–152 Additionally, and perhaps also due in part to the Bedouin migrations, the urban population became concentrated along coastal cities instead of inland towns, though major oases and inland centres likeKairouan andConstantine remained significant.[20]: 152 By the mid-14th century, the population of Tunis had grown to 100,000, making it one of the largest cities in the world at the time.[11]: 35
Andalusi migrants and refugees, who fled the advance of the Christian conquests in the Iberian Peninsula, became an important element of the urban population. These migrants were culturally Arab and followed theMaliki legal school (maddhhab) of Sunni Islam.[9]: 127 The Hafsids relied upon them heavily as scribes, bureaucrats, and other government officials.[22]: 321 [9]: 127
The Hafsid rulers continued to followAlmohad doctrine initially, at least officially, but Almohadism was not widely followed among the rest of the population. The Hafsids tolerated the activities of Sunni islamic scholars (ulama) from the regionally dominant Maliki school and eventually, during the 14th century, these scholars came to occupy most religious offices in the state.[9]: 132–133 Tunis also replaced Kairouan, the former traditional capital of Ifriqiya, as the main center of religious scholarship.Ibn 'Arafa, who served as the imam of theZaytuna Mosque in Tunis from 1355 to 1401, was one of main figures in this Maliki revival. In turn, the Malikis provided support to the Hafsid resurgence in the later 14th century.[9]: 133
Among other things, the Malikis served as a counterweight to the growing influence ofSufi saints. Cults based around these saints had grown in importance across the country, especially in the countryside and among the Arab tribes there. The Hafsids remained wary of this trend, which undermined centralized authority, and thus allied with the more urban Maliki scholars.[9]: 133–134 [8]: 139–140 Nonetheless,Sufism grew into one of the most important aspects of Islam in the region, withzawiyas (Sufi religious complexes) founded in many locations, sometimes under the protection of local tribes, and reached some level of accommodation with central authorities.[22]: 322–323
Under Almohad rule, Jews were treated poorly, and their communities nearly disappeared. Under the Hafsids, a policy of tolerance returned and allowed their communities to recover. Jews were prominent as merchants, moneylenders, and craftsmen. The recovery was also aided by the arrival of Jewish refugees fleeing persecution on the Iberian Peninsula, particularly after their1492 expulsion from Spain.[8]: 177–178 [20]: 152–153 Jews elected a leader who represented them before the sultan and were allowed to govern themselves according torabbinical law, thoughIslamic law and tribunals still had priority where relevant.[8]: 178
What was left of indigenous Christianity in Ifriqiya had disappeared in the 13th century under Almohad rule.[20]: 153 In contrast again with the Almohads, the Hafsids showed a marked toleration for Christianity, in part because they sought commercial ties with European Christian states, who saw this toleration as a requisite for normal relations. Treaties were struck with individual states that also laid out the conditions under which Christians lived in Hafsid domains. These included rights, such as diplomatic representation by aconsul, as well as restrictions, such as prohibiting merchants from bringing their spouses to live with them.[8]: 178–179 Most of these Christians were merchants from countries around the Mediterranean such asCatalonia, southern France, and themaritime republics of Italy.[8]: 178 [11]: 35
Starting sometime in Abu Zakariya's reign (r. 1229–1249), Catalonian Christian mercenaries were brought into the service of the Hafsid army as a result of Hafsid relations with theKingdom of Aragon. The king of Aragon retained some formal authority over this mercenary corps, while other European Christians joined its ranks over time. Aragonese subjects had a dedicatedfondouk, a compound that provided lodging and services, in both Tunis and Béjaïa.[9]: 121–127 [20]: 153–154 By the 15th century, the descendants of these and other mercenaries continued to form the ruler's personal guard but had assimilated to Arab culture.[22]: 321
The Hafsids, with their location in Ifriqiya, was rich in agriculture and trade. Instead of placing the capital at inland cities such asKairouan, Tunis was chosen as the capital due to its position on the coast as a port linking the Western and Eastern Mediterranean. Christian merchants from Europe were given their own enclaves in various cities on the Mediterranean coast, promoting trans-Mediterranean trade. Under the Hafsids, commerce and diplomatic relations with Christian Europe grew significantly,[23] howeverpiracy against Christian shipping grew as well, particularly during the rule ofAbd al-Aziz II (1394–1434). The Hafsids also had a large stake in trans-Saharan trade through the caravan routes from Tunis toTimbuktu and fromTripoli to sub-Saharan Africa.[11]: 34–36
The Hafsids were effective patrons of culture and education.[3] They were the first to introducemadrasas to the Maghreb.[24]: 209 [3] Arabic literacy and religious education thus increased, withKairouan,Tunis andBijaya hosting famous university-mosques. Kairouan continued to serve as a center of theMaliki school of religious doctrine.[11]: 37 As the political center of the country shifted to Tunis, theGreat Mosque of al-Zaytuna, the city's main mosque, became the country's leading center of learning.[25] Of great impact on culture were immigrants from al-Andalus, whom Abu Zakariya encouraged to come to his realm in the 13th century. Among the most important figures was the historian and intellectual,Ibn Khaldun, born in Tunis and of Andalusi descent.[3]
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The Hafsids were significant builders, particularly under the reigns of successful leaders like Abu Zakariya (r. 1229–1249) andAbu Faris (r. 1394–1434), though not many of their monuments have survived intact to the present-day.[24]: 208 While Kairouan remained an important religious center, Tunis was the capital and progressively replaced it as the main city of the region and the main center of architectural patronage. Unlike the architecture further west,Hafsid architecture was built primarily in stone (rather thanbrick ormudbrick) and appears to have featured much less decoration.[24]: 208 In reviewing the history ofarchitecture in the western Islamic world, scholarJonathan Bloom remarks that Hafsid architecture seems to have "largely charted a course independent of the developments elsewhere in the Maghrib."[24]: 213
TheKasbah Mosque of Tunis was one of the first works of this period, built by Abu Zakariya (the first independent Hafsid ruler) at the beginning of his reign. Its floor plan had noticeable differences from previous Almohad-period mosques but the minaret, completed in 1233, bears very strong resemblance to the minaret of the earlier AlmohadKasbah Mosque in Marrakesh.[24] Other foundations from the Hafsid period in Tunis include theHaliq Mosque (13th century) and theal-Hawa Mosque (1375). TheBardo Palace (today a national museum) was also begun by the Hafsids in the 15th century,[26] and is mentioned in historical records for the first time during the reign of Abu Faris.[24]: 208 The Hafsids also made significant renovations to the much older Great Mosque of Kairouan – renovating its ceiling, reinforcing its walls, and building or rebuilding two of its entrance gates in 1293 – as well as to the Great Mosque of al-Zaytuna in Tunis.[24]: 209
The Hafsids also introduced the first madrasas to the region, beginning with theMadrasa al-Shamma῾iyya built in Tunis in 1238[27][24]: 209 (or in 1249 according to some sources[28]: 296 [29]). This was followed by many others (almost all of them in Tunis) such as the Madrasa al-Hawa founded in the 1250s, the Madrasa al-Ma'ridiya (1282), and theMadrasa al-Unqiya (1341).[24] Many of these early madrasas, however, have been poorly preserved or have been considerably modified in the centuries since their foundation.[24][30] The Madrasa al-Muntasiriya, completed in 1437, is among the best preserved madrasas of the Hafsid period.[24]: 211
According to French historianRobert Brunschvig, the Hafsid dynasty and its founding tribe,Hintata, were represented specifically with a white flag;[31] he states : "Among the Hafsid standards carried in the parades stood out, apart, closer to the sultan and held by a man on horseback, a white standard, the "victorious standard" (al-alam al-mansûr). It is with good reason that some wanted to find in this white standard that of the Almohads, of the same color, reproducing in turn that which the Fatimids had adopted."[31] Egyptian historiographerAl-Qalqashandi (d. 1418) mentioned white flags when he spoke about the Almohad flag in Tunisia, where he stated that: "It was a white flag called the victorious flag, and it was raised before their sultan when riding forEid prayers or for the movement of themakhzen slaves (which were the ordinary people of the country and the people of the markets)."[32] HistorianCharles-André Julien also speaks of Hafsid sovereigns doing parades with their court while hoisting their own white standard, overshadowing multicolored flags of embroidered silk.[33]
TheBook of Knowledge of All Kingdoms, written by a Franciscan friar in the 14th century, describes the flag of Tunis as being white with a black moon at its center. Other cities within modern Tunisia and eastern Algeria were also reported having white flags with a moon.[34]
![Early red flag with white or yellow crescent of the 14th century, reported by Marino Sanudo (ca. 1321), Pietro Vesconte (1325), Angelino Dulcerta (1339) and the Catalan Atlas (1385)[35]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFlag_of_Tunis_during_14th_century.svg)
![White with blue crescent according to Jacobo Russo, 1550 (last period of the kingdom)[35]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFlag_of_Hafsid_Tunisia_(1550).svg)
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| S. n. | Name | Birth date | Death date | Reign | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| – | Abu Muhammad Abd al-Wahid ibn Abi Hafs | unknown | 1222 | 1207–1222 | Not yet a sultan, just a local minor leader. |
| – | Abu Muhammad Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Wahid | unknown | 1229 | 1222–1229 | Not yet a sultan, just a local minor leader. |
| 1st | Abu Zakariya Yahya | 1203 | 5 October 1249 | 1229–1249 | |
| 2nd | Muhammad I al-Mustansir | 1228 | 1277 | 1249–1277 | |
| 3rd | Yahya II al-Wathiq | 1249 | 1279 | 1277–1279 | |
| 4th | Ibrahim I | 1234 | 1283 | 1279–1283 | |
| 5th | Abd al-Aziz I | unknown | 1283 | 1283 | |
| 6th | Ibn Abi Umara | unknown | 1284 | 1283–1284 | |
| 7th | Abu Hafs Umar bin Yahya | 1245 | 1295 | 1284–1295 | |
| 8th | Abu Asida Muhammad II | 1279 | September 1309 | 1295–1309 | |
| 9th | Abu Yahya Abu Bakr ash-Shahid | unknown | September 1309 | 1309 | |
| 10th | Abu-l-Baqa Khalid An-Nasr | c.1283 | 1311 | 1309–1311 | |
| 11th | Abd al-Wahid Zakariya ibn al-Lihyani | 1253 | 1326 | 1311–1317 | |
| 12th | Abu Darba Muhammad Al-Mustansir | 1274 | 1323 | 1317–1318 | |
| 13th | Abu Yahya Abu Bakr II | 1293 | 19 October 1346 | 1318–1346 | |
| 14th | Abu-l Abbas Ahmad | unknown | 1346 | 1346 | |
| 15th | Abu Hafs Umar II | unknown | 1347 | 1346–1347 | |
| 16th | Abu al-Abbas Ahmad al-Fadl al-Mutawakkil | unknown | 1350 | 1347–1350 | |
| 17th | Abu Ishaq Ibrahim II | October or November 1336 | 19 February 1369 | 1350–1369 | |
| 18th | Abu-l-Baqa Khalid II | unknown | November 1370 | 1369–1370 | |
| 19th | Ahmad II | 1329 | 3 June 1394 | 1370–1394 | |
| 20th | Abd al-Aziz II | 1361 | July 1434 | 1394–1434 | |
| 21st | Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad al-Muntasir | unknown | 16 September 1435 | 1434–1435 | |
| 22nd | Abu 'Amr 'Uthman | February 1419 | September 1488 | 1435–1488 | |
| 23rd | Abu Zakariya Yahya II | unknown | 1489 | 1488–1489 | |
| 24th | Abd al-Mu'min | unknown | 1490 | 1489–1490 | |
| 25th | Abu Yahya Zakariya III | unknown | 1494 | 1490–1494 | |
| 26th | Abu Abdallah Muhammad IV al-Mutawakkil | unknown | 1526 | 1494–1526 | |
| 27th | Muhammad V (“Moulay Hasan”) | unknown | 1543 | 1526–1543 | |
| 28th | Ahmad III | c. 1500 | August 1575 | 1543–1569 | |
| Ottoman conquest (1569–1573) | |||||
| 29th | Muhammad VI | unknown | 1594 | 1573–1574 | |
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| People | |
| Other | |
