A distinctive feature of Vajrayāna is its emphasis onesoteric transmission, where teachings are passed directly from teacher (guru orvajrācārya) to student throughinitiation ceremonies.[2] Tradition asserts that these teachings have been passed down through an unbroken lineage going back to thehistorical Buddha (c. the 5th century BCE), sometimes via other Buddhas orbodhisattvas (e.g.Vajrapani).[3] This lineage-based transmission ensures the preservation of the teachings' purity and effectiveness. Practitioners often engage indeity yoga, a meditative practice where one visualizes oneself as a deity embodying enlightened qualities to transform one's perception of reality. The tradition also acknowledges the role of feminine energy, venerating female Buddhas andḍākiṇīs (spiritual beings), and sometimes incorporates practices that challenge conventional norms totranscend dualistic thinking.
Vajrayāna has given rise to various sub-traditions across Asia. InTibet, it evolved intoTibetan Buddhism, which became the dominant spiritual tradition, integrating local beliefs and practices. InJapan, it influencedShingon Buddhism, established byKūkai, emphasizing the use of mantras and rituals.Chinese Esoteric Buddhism also emerged, blending Vajrayāna practices with existingChinese Buddhist traditions. Each of these traditions adapted Vajrayāna principles to its cultural context while maintaining core esoteric practices aimed at achieving enlightenment.
Central to Vajrayāna symbolism is thevajra, a ritual implement representing indestructibility and irresistible force, embodying the union ofwisdom andcompassion. Practitioners often use the vajra in conjunction with abell during rituals, symbolizing the integration of male and female principles. The tradition also employs rich visual imagery, including complex mandalas and depictions ofwrathful deities that serve as meditation aids to help practitioners internalize spiritual concepts and confront inner obstacles on the path to enlightenment.
In India, the initial term was Mantranāya (Path of Mantras), and Mantrayāna (Mantra Vehicle).[4] Later, other terms were adopted, like Vajrayāna.
InTibetan Buddhism practiced in the Himalayan regions ofIndia,Nepal, andBhutan, Buddhist Tantra is most often termedVajrayāna (Tib. རྡོ་རྗེ་ཐེག་པ་,dorje tekpa, Wyl.rdo rje theg pa) andSecret mantra (Skt.Guhyamantra, Tib. གསང་སྔགས་,sang ngak, Wyl.gsang sngags). Thevajra is a mythical weapon associated withIndra that was said to be indestructible and unbreakable (like a diamond) and extremely powerful (like thunder). Thus, the term is variously translated as Diamond Vehicle, Thunderbolt Vehicle, Indestructible Vehicle and so on.
InChinese Esoteric Buddhism it is generally known by terms such asZhēnyán (Chinese: 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra),Tángmì orHanmì (唐密 - 漢密, "Tang Esotericism" or "Han Esotericism"), Mìzōng (密宗, "Esoteric Sect"), orMìjiao (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching). The Chinese termmì 密 ("secret, esoteric") is a translation of the Sanskrit termGuhya ("secret, hidden, profound, abstruse").[5]
InJapan, Buddhist esotericism is known asMikkyō (密教, secret teachings) or by the termShingon (a Japanese rendering ofZhēnyán), which also refers to a specific school ofShingon-shū (真言宗).
According to David B. Gray, Vajrayana originated from pre-existing Tantric traditions, also known as 'Tantrism', which emerged withinHinduism during the first millennium CE. These early Hindu tantric practices had a profound influence on South Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism, leading to the development of distinct Buddhist tantric traditions, which arose in the 7th century CE, rapidly spread across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, giving rise to distinct traditions in East Asia and Tibet.[7]
Mahasiddhas, Palpung monastery. Note the figure of the great adept Putalipa at center, seated in a cave and gazing at an image of the meditational deity Samvara and the figure at the bottom left holding a skull-staff (khaṭvāṅga) and a flaying knife (kartika).
Tantric Buddhism is associated with groups of wanderingyogis calledmahasiddhas inmedieval India.[8] According toRobert Thurman, these tantric figures thrived during the latter half of the first millennium CE.[3] According to John Myrdhin Reynolds, the mahasiddhas date to the medieval period in North India and used methods radically different from those used in Buddhist monasteries, including practicing oncharnel grounds.[9]
Since Tantra focuses on the transformation of poisons into wisdom, the yogic circles came together intantric feasts, often in sacred sites (pitha) and places (ksetra), which included dancing, singing, consort practices, and the ingestion oftaboo substances like alcohol, urine, and meat.[10] At least two of the mahasiddhas cited in the Buddhist literature are comparable with the ShaivaNath saints (Gorakshanath andMatsyendranath) who practicedHatha Yoga.
According to Schumann, a movement calledSahaja-siddhi developed in the 8th century inBengal.[11] It was dominated by long-haired, wandering mahasiddhas who openly challenged and ridiculed the Buddhist establishment.[12] The mahasiddhas pursuedsiddhis, magical powers such as flight andextrasensory perception as well as spiritual liberation.[13][14]
Vajrayāna Buddhists developed a large corpus of texts, theBuddhist Tantras, some of which can be traced to at least the 7th century CE but might be older. The dating of the tantras is "a difficult, indeed an impossible task", according toDavid Snellgrove.[16]
The Guhyasamāja is aMahayoga class of Tantra, which features forms of ritual practice considered "left-hand" (vamachara), such as use of taboo substances like alcohol, consort practices, andcharnel ground practices that evokewrathful deities.[20] Ryujun Tajima divides the tantras into those that were "a development of Mahāyānist thought" and those "formed in a rather popular mould toward the end of the eighth century and declining into the esoterism of the left".[21] This "left esoterism" mainly refers to the Yogini tantras and later works associated with wandering yogis. This practice survives in Tibetan Buddhism, but it is rare for this to be done with an actual person. It is more common for a yogi or yogini to use an imagined consort (a buddhist tantric deity, i.e. a yidam).[22]
Later tantras such as theHevajra Tantra and theChakrasamvara are classed as "Yogini tantras" and represent the final form of development of Indian Buddhist tantras in the ninth and tenth centuries.[17] TheKalachakra tantra developed in the 10th century.[23] It is farthest removed from the earlier Buddhist traditions, and incorporates concepts ofmessianism andastrology not present elsewhere in Buddhist literature.[12]
According to Ronald M. Davidson, the rise of Tantric Buddhism was a response to the feudal structure of Indian society in the early medieval period (ca. 500–1200 CE), which saw kings divinized as manifestations of gods. Likewise, tantric yogis reconfigured their practice through the metaphor of being consecrated (abhiśeka) as the overlord (rājādhirāja) of a mandala palace of divine vassals, an imperial metaphor symbolizing kingly fortresses and their political power.[24]
Vajrayana adopted deities such asBhairava, known asYamantaka inTibetan Buddhism.The central deity of theCakrasaṃvara Tantra, which, according to scholars like David B. Gray and Alexis Sanderson, appropriated numerous elements from nondual Shaiva Tantra
The question of the origins of early Vajrayāna has been taken up by various scholars.David Seyfort Ruegg has suggested that Buddhist tantra employed various elements of a "pan-Indian religious substrate" that is not specifically Buddhist,Shaiva orVaishnava.[25]
According toAlexis Sanderson, various classes of Vajrayāna literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Shaivism.[26] The relationship between the two systems can be seen in texts like theMañjusrimulakalpa, which later came to be classified underKriya tantra, and states that mantras taught in the Shaiva, Garuda, and Vaishnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally byManjushri.[27]
Sanderson notes that the Vajrayāna Yogini tantras draw extensively from the material also present in ShaivaBhairava tantras classified asVidyapitha. Sanderson's comparison of them shows similarity in "ritual procedures, style of observance, deities, mantras, mandalas, ritual dress, Kapalika accouterments like skull bowls, specialized terminology, secret gestures, and secret jargons. There is even direct borrowing of passages from Shaiva texts."[28] Sanderson gives numerous examples, such as theGuhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with theGuhyasamaja tradition, which prescribes acting as aShaiva guru and initiating members intoSaiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas.[29] Sanderson says that theSamvara tantra texts adopted thepitha list from the Shaiva textTantrasadbhāva, introducing a copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place.[30]
Davidson argues that Sanderson's arguments for direct influence from ShaivaVidyapitha texts are problematic because "the chronology of theVidyapitha tantras is by no means so well established"[31] and "the available evidence suggests that received Saiva tantras come into evidence sometime in the ninth to tenth centuries with their affirmation by scholars likeAbhinavagupta (c. 1000 c.e.)"[32] Davidson also notes that the list of pithas or sacred places is "certainly not particularly Buddhist, nor are they uniquelyKapalika venues, despite their presence in lists employed by both traditions."[33] He adds that, like the Buddhists, the Shaiva tradition was involved in the appropriation of Hindu and non-Hindu deities, texts, and traditions, an example being "village or tribal divinities like Tumburu".[34]
Davidson adds that Buddhists and Kapalikas as well as other ascetics (possiblyPasupatas) mingled and discussed their paths at various pilgrimage places and that there were conversions between the different groups. Thus he concludes:
The Buddhist-Kapalika connection is more complex than a simple process of religious imitation and textual appropriation. There can be no question that the Buddhist tantras were heavily influenced byKapalika and other Saiva movements, but the influence was apparently mutual. Perhaps a more nuanced model would be that the various lines of transmission were locally flourishing and that in some areas they interacted, while in others they maintained concerted hostility. Thus the influence was both sustained and reciprocal, even in those places where Buddhist and Kapalika siddhas were in extreme antagonism.[35]
Davidson also argues for the influence of non-Brahmanical and outcastetribal religions and their feminine deities (such asParnasabari and Janguli).[36]
According to several Buddhist tantras as well as traditional Tibetan Buddhist sources, the tantras and the Vajrayana was taught by theBuddha Shakyamuni, but only to some individuals. There are several stories and versions of how the tantras were disseminated. TheJñana Tilaka Tantra, for example, has the Buddha say that the tantras will be explained by the bodhisattvaVajrapani. One of the most famous legends is that of kingIndrabhuti (also known as King Ja) ofOddiyana (a figure related to Vajrapani, in some cases said to be an emanation of him).[37]
Other accounts attribute the revelation of Buddhist tantras toPadmasambhava, saying that he was an emanation ofAmitabha andAvalokiteshvara and that the Buddha predicted his arrival. Some accounts also maintain Padmasambhava is a direct reincarnation of Buddha Shakyamuni.[38]
According toAlex Wayman, the philosophical view of the Vajrayana is based onMahayanaBuddhist philosophy, mainly theMadhyamaka andYogacara schools.[39] The major difference seen by Vajrayana thinkers is the superiority of Tantric methods, which provide a faster vehicle to liberation and contain many more skillful means (upaya).
The importance of the theory ofemptiness is central to the Tantric Buddhist view and practice. The Buddhist emptiness view sees the world as fluid, without an ontological foundation or inherent existence, but ultimately a fabric of constructions. Because of this, tantric practice such as self-visualization as the deity is seen as no less real than everyday reality, but a process of transforming reality itself, including the practitioner's identity as the deity. Stephan Beyer notes, "In a universe where all events dissolve ontologically into Emptiness, the touching of Emptiness in the ritual is the re-creation of the world in actuality".[40]
The doctrine ofBuddha-nature, as outlined in theRatnagotravibhāga ofAsanga, was also an important theory that became the basis for Tantric views.[41] As explained by the Tantric commentator Lilavajra, this "intrinsic secret [behind] diverse manifestation" is Tantra's utmost secret and aim. According to Wayman, this "Buddha embryo" (tathāgatagarbha) is a "non-dual, self-originated Wisdom (jnana), an effortless fount of good qualities" that resides in the mindstream but is "obscured by discursive thought".[42] This doctrine is often associated with the idea ofinherent or natural luminosity (Skt:prakṛti-prabhāsvara-citta,T.’od gsal gyi sems) or purity of the mind (prakrti-parisuddha).
Another fundamental theory ofTantric practice is that of transformation. In Vajrayāna, negative mental factors such as desire, hatred, greed, and pride are used as part of the path. As French Indologist Madeleine Biardeau notes, the tantric doctrine is "an attempt to placekama, desire, in every meaning of the word, in the service of liberation."[43] This view is outlined in the following passage from theHevajra tantra:
Those things by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain thereby release from the bonds of existence. By passion the world is bound, by passion too it is released, but by heretical Buddhists this practice of reversals is not known.[44]
TheHevajra further states that "one knowing the nature of poison may dispel poison with poison."[43] As Snellgrove notes, this idea is already present inAsanga'sMahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika and therefore it is possible that he was aware of Tantric techniques, including sexual yoga.[45]
According to Buddhist Tantra, there is no strict separation of the profane orsamsara and the sacred ornirvana; rather, they exist in a continuum. Everyone is seen as containing the seed of enlightenment, which is covered over bydefilements.Douglas Duckworth notes that Vajrayana seesBuddhahood not as something outside or an event in the future, but as immanently present.[46]
Indian Tantric Buddhist philosophers such asBuddhaguhya,Vimalamitra,Ratnākaraśānti, andAbhayakaragupta continued the tradition of Buddhist philosophy and adapted it to their commentaries on the major Tantras. Abhayakaragupta'sVajravali is a key source in the theory and practice of tantric rituals. After monks such asVajrabodhi andŚubhakarasiṃha brought Tantra to Tang China (716 to 720), tantric philosophy continued to be developed in Chinese and Japanese by thinkers such asYi Xing andKūkai.
Likewise inTibet,Sakya Pandita (1182–28 – 1251), as well as later thinkers likeLongchenpa (1308–1364) expanded on these philosophies in their tantric commentaries and treatises. The status of the tantric view continued to be debated in medieval Tibet.Tibetan BuddhistRongzom Chokyi Zangpo (1012–1088) held that the views of sutra such as Madhyamaka were inferior to that of tantra, which was based on basic purity of ultimate reality.[47]Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), on the other hand, held that there is no difference between Vajrayāna and other forms of Mahayana in terms ofprajnaparamita (perfection of insight) itself, only that Vajrayāna works faster.[48]
Various classifications distinguish Vajrayāna from other Buddhist traditions. Vajrayāna can be seen as a thirdyana, next toŚrāvakayāna andMahayana.[12] Vajrayāna can be distinguished from theSutrayana. TheSutrayana is the method of perfecting good qualities, where theVajrayāna is the method of taking the intended outcome ofBuddhahood as the path. Vajrayāna can also be distinguished from the paramitayana. According to this schema, Indian Mahayana revealed two vehicles (yana) or methods for attaining enlightenment: the method of the perfections (Paramitayana) and the method of mantra (Mantrayana).[49]
TheParamitayana consists of the six or tenparamitas, of which the scriptures say that it takes three incalculableaeons to lead one to Buddhahood. The tantra literature, on the other hand, says that theMantrayana leads one to Buddhahood in a single lifetime.[49] According to the literature, the mantra is an easy path without the difficulties of theParamitayana.[49]Mantrayana is sometimes portrayed as a method for those of inferior abilities,[49] but the practitioner of mantra must still adhere to theBodhisattva vow.[49]
The goal of spiritual practice in the Mahayana and Vajrayāna traditions is to become aSammāsambuddha (fully awakenedBuddha); those on this path are termedBodhisattvas. As with the Mahayana, motivation is a vital component of Vajrayāna practice. The Bodhisattva-path is an integral part of the Vajrayāna, which teaches that all practices are to be undertaken with the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.
In the vehicle of Sutra Mahayana, the "path of the cause" is taken whereby a practitioner starts with his or her potential Buddha-nature and nurtures it to produce the fruit of Buddhahood. In the Vajrayāna, the "path of the fruit" is taken whereby the practitioner takes his or her innate Buddha-nature as the means of practice. The premise is that since we innately have an enlightened mind, practicing seeing the world in terms of ultimate truth can help us attain our full Buddha-nature.[50] Experiencing ultimate truth is said to be the purpose of all the varioustantric techniques practiced in the Vajrayana.
Monks attending the 2003Kalachakra empowerment inBodhgaya, India. Some empowerment ceremonies can include large numbers of initiates.
Vajrayāna Buddhism is esoteric in the sense that the transmission of certain teachings occurs only from teacher to student during anempowerment (abhiṣeka), and their practice requires initiation in a ritual space containing the mandala of the deity.[51] Many techniques are also commonly said to be secret, but some Vajrayana teachers have responded that secrecy itself is not important and only a side effect of the reality that the techniques have no validity outside the teacher-student lineage.[citation needed]
The secrecy of teachings was often protected through the use of allusive, indirect,symbolic, and metaphorical language (twilight language) that required interpretation and guidance from a teacher.[52] The teachings may also be considered "self-secret", meaning that even if they were to be told directly to a person, that person would not necessarily understand the teachings without proper context. In this way, the teachings are "secret" to the minds of those who are not following the path with more than simple curiosity.[53][54]
Esler points out that while secrecy is presented as necessary to prevent the teachings from falling into the hands of unworthy recipients, it also serves to demarcate a kind of religious in-group. He observes that from an anthropological perspective, allowing reference to the secret to "remain close to the social surface" through veiled allusions plays a more important role in some ways than the secret content itself, as it mobilizes the secret as a kind of symbolic capital.[55]
Because of their role in giving access to the practices and guiding the student through them, the role of theVajracharyaLama is indispensable in Vajrayāna.
Some Vajrayāna rituals traditionally included the use of certaintaboo substances, such as blood, semen, alcohol, and urine, as ritual offerings andsacraments, though some of these are often replaced with less taboo substances such as yogurt. Tantric feasts and initiations sometimes employed substances like human flesh, as noted by Kahha'sYogaratnamala.[56]
The use of these substances is related to thenon-dual (advaya) nature of a Buddha's wisdom (buddhajñana). Since the ultimate state is in some sense non-dual, a practitioner can approach that state by "transcending attachment to dual categories such as pure and impure, permitted and forbidden". As theGuhyasamaja Tantra states, "the wise man who does not discriminate achieves Buddhahood".[56]
Vajrayāna rituals also includesexual yoga, union with a physical consort as part of advanced practices. Some tantras go further: theHevajra tantra states, "You should kill living beings, speak lying words, take what is not given, consort with the women of others".[56] While some of these statements were taken literally as part of ritual practice, others, such as killing, were interpreted metaphorically. In the Hevajra, "killing" is defined as developing concentration by killing the life-breath of discursive thoughts.[57] Likewise, while actual sexual union with a physical consort is practiced, it is also common to use a visualized consort.[citation needed]
Wayman points out that the symbolic meaning of tantric sexuality is ultimately rooted inbodhicitta and the bodhisattva's quest for enlightenment is likened to a lover seeking union with the mind of the Buddha.[58]Judith Simmer-Brown notes the importance of the psycho-physical experiences arising in sexual yoga, termed "great bliss" (mahasukha): "Bliss melts the conceptual mind, heightens sensory awareness, and opens the practitioner to the naked experience of the nature of mind."[59] This tantric experience is not the same as ordinary self-gratifying sexual passion since it relies on tantric meditative methods using theillusory body and visualizations as well as the motivation for enlightenment.[60] TheHevajra tantra says:
This practice [of sexual union with a consort] is not taught for the sake of enjoyment, but for the examination of one's own thought, whether the mind is steady or waving.[61]
Feminine deities and forces are a major element of Vajrayāna. In the Yogini tantras in particular, women and female yoginis are given high status as the embodiment of female deities such as the wild and nudeVajrayogini.[62] TheCandamaharosana Tantra (viii:29–30) states:
Women are heaven, women are the teaching (dharma) Women indeed are the highest austerity (tapas) Women are the Buddha, women are theSangha Women are the Perfection of Wisdom.[62]
In India, there is evidence that women participated in tantric practice alongside men and were also teachers, adepts, and authors of tantric texts.[63]
Practitioners of Vajrayāna must abide by various tantric vows or pledges calledsamaya. These are extensions of the rules of thePrātimokṣa andBodhisattva vows for the lower levels of tantra, and are taken during initiations into the empowerment for a particularUnsurpassed Yoga Tantra. The special tantric vows vary depending on the specific mandala practice for which the initiation is received and on the level of initiation.Ngagpas of theNyingma school keep a special non-celibate ordination.
A tantricguru, or teacher, is expected to keep his or hersamaya vows in the same way as his students. Proper conduct is considered especially necessary for a qualified Vajrayana guru. For example, theOrnament for the Essence of Manjushrikirti states:
Distance yourself from Vajra Masters who are not keeping the three vows who keep on with a root downfall, who are miserly with the Dharma, and who engage in actions that should be forsaken. Those who worship them go to hell and so on as a result.[64]
While all Vajrayāna Buddhist traditions include all the traditional practices used in Mahayana Buddhism, such as developingbodhicitta, practicing theparamitas, andmeditations, they also make use of unique tantric methods andDzogchen meditation, which are seen as more advanced. These include mantras, mandalas, mudras,deity yoga, other visualization-based meditations,illusory body yogas liketummo, and rituals like thegoma fire ritual. Vajrayana teaches that these techniques provide a faster path toBuddhahood.[65]
A central feature of tantric practice is the use of mantras and seed syllables (bijas). Mantras are words, phrases, or a collection of syllables used for various meditative, magical, and ritual ends. Mantras are usually associated withspecific deities or Buddhas, and are seen as their manifestations in sonic form. They are traditionally believed to have spiritual power, which can lead to enlightenment as well as supramundane abilities (siddhis).[66]
Secret of Body: Whatever form is necessary to tame the living beings.
Secret of Speech: Speech exactly appropriate to the lineage of the creature, as in the language of the yaksas, etc.
Secret of Mind: Knowing all things as they really are.
These elements are brought together in the practice of tantric deity yoga, which involves visualizing the deity's body and mandala, reciting the deity's mantra, and gaining insight into the nature of things based on this contemplation. Advanced tantric practices such as deity yoga are taught in the context of an initiation ceremony by tantric gurus or vajracharyas (vajra-masters) to the tantric initiate, who also takes on formal commitments or vows (samaya).[66] InTibetan Buddhism, advanced practices like deity yoga are usually preceded by or coupled with "preliminary practices" calledngondro, consisting of five to seven accumulation practices and includesprostrations and recitations of the100 syllable mantra.[69]
Vajrayana is a system of tantriclineages, and thus only those who receive an empowerment or initiation (abhiseka) may practice the more advanced esoteric methods. In tantric deity yoga, mantras, or bijas are used during the ritual evocation of deities that are said to arise out of the uttered and visualized mantric syllables. After the deity's image and mandala has been established, heart mantras are visualized as part of the contemplation in different points of the deity's body.[70]
Most Tantric Buddhists believe nirvana is achievable in a single lifetime with "vigorous study and meditation".[71]
An 18th century Mongolian miniature which depicts a monk generating a tantric visualizationA Japanese depiction of the Amida Triad in Seed Syllable form (Siddham Script). Visualizing deities in the form of seed syllables is a common Vajrayana meditation. In Shingon, one of the most common practices isAjikan (阿字觀), meditating on the syllable A.
The fundamental practice of Buddhist Tantra is "deity yoga" (devatayoga), meditation on a chosen deity or "cherished divinity" (Skt.Iṣṭa-devatā, Tib.yidam), which involves the recitation of mantras and prayers and visualization of the deity, the associatedmandala of the deity'sBuddha field, along with consorts and attendant Buddhas and bodhisattvas.[72] According to the Tibetan scholarTsongkhapa, deity yoga separates Tantra from Sutra practice.[73]
In the Unsurpassed Yoga Tantras, the most widespread tantric form in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, this method is divided into two stages, generation (utpatti-krama) and completion (nispanna-krama). In the generation stage, one dissolves one's reality into emptiness and meditates on the deity-mandala, resulting in identification with this divine reality. In the completion stage, the divine image along with the illusory body is applied to the realization ofluminousemptiness.
This dissolution into emptiness is then followed by the visualization of the deity and the yogi's re-emergence as the deity. During deity visualization, the deity is to be imagined as not solid or tangible, as "empty yet apparent", with the character of amirage or arainbow.[74] This visualization is to be combined with "divine pride", which is "the thought that one is oneself the deity being visualized."[75] Divine pride is different from common pride because it is based on compassion for others and an understanding of emptiness.[76]
A Tibetan depiction of the perfection stage practices oftummo (Skt.candali, inner heat) andphowa (transference of consciousness)
The TibetologistDavid Germano outlines two main types of completion practice: a formless and image-less contemplation on the ultimate empty nature of the mind and various yogas that make use of the illusory body to produce energetic sensations of bliss and warmth.[77]
The illusory body yogas systems like theSix Dharmas of Naropa and theSix Yogas of Kalachakra make use of energetic schemas of human psycho-physiology composed of "energy channels" (Skt.nadi, Tib.rtsa), "winds" or currents (Skt.vayu, Tib.rlung), "drops" or charged particles (Skt.bindu, Tib.thig le), andchakras ("wheels"). These subtle energies are seen as "mounts" for consciousness, the physical component of awareness. They are engaged by various means such aspranayama (breath control) to produce blissful experiences that are then applied to the realization of ultimate reality.[78]
Other methods associated with the completion stage in Tibetan Buddhism includedream yoga (which relies onlucid dreaming), practices associated with thebardo (the interim state between death andrebirth), transference of consciousness (phowa), andChöd, in which the yogi ceremonially offers their body to be eaten by tantric deities in a ritual feast.
A Newari Buddhist mandala used for Guru Puja, Nepal, 19th century, gilt copper inlaid with semiprecious stonesVideo of a Shingon Goma Fire Ritual at Yakuōin Yūkiji,Mount Takao
Another form of Vajrayana practice are certain meditative techniques associated withMahāmudrā andDzogchen, often termed "formless practices" or the path of self-liberation. These techniques do not rely on deity visualization per se but on directpointing-out instruction from a master, and are often seen as the most advanced and direct methods.[79]
Another distinctive feature of Tantric Buddhism is its unique and often elaboraterituals. They include pujas (worship rituals),prayer festivals, protection rituals, death rituals, tantric feasts (ganachakra), tantric initiations (abhiseka) and the goma fire ritual (common in East Asian Esotericism).
A video of theCham dance, a traditional practice in some sects of Tibetan Buddhism
An important element in some of these rituals (particularly initiations and tantric feasts) seems to have been the practice ofritual sex or sexual yoga (karmamudra, "desire seal", also called "consort observance",vidyavrata, and euphemistically as "puja"), as well as the sacramental ingestion of "power substances" such as the mingled sexual fluids and uterine blood (often performed by licking these substances off thevulva, a practice termedyonipuja).[80]
The practice of ingestion of sexual fluids is mentioned by numerous tantric commentators, sometimes euphemistically referring to the penis as the "vajra" and the vagina as the "lotus". TheCakrasamvara Tantra commentator Kambala, writing about this practice, states:
The seats are well-known on earth to be spots within the lotus mandala; by abiding within it there is great bliss, the royal nature of nondual joy. Therefore the lotus seat is supreme: filled with a mixture of semen and uterine blood, one should especially kiss it, and lolling with the tongue take it up. Unite the vajra and lotus, with the rapture of drinking [this] liquor.[81]
According to David Gray, these sexual practices probably originated in a non-monastic context and were later adopted by monastic establishments (such asNalanda andVikramashila). He notes that the anxiety of figures likeAtisa about these practices, and the stories ofVirūpa andMaitripa being expelled from their monasteries for performing them, shows that supposedly celibate monastics were undertaking these sexual rites.[82]
Because of its adoption by the monastic tradition, sexual yoga slowly became either done with an imaginary consort visualized by the yogi instead of an actual person, or reserved to a small group of the "highest" or elite practitioners. Likewise, the drinking of sexual fluids was also reinterpreted by later commentators to refer to illusory body anatomy of the perfection stage practices.[83]
Vajrayāna uses a rich variety of symbols, terms, and images that have multiple meanings according to a complex system ofanalogical thinking. In Vajrayāna, symbols, and terms are multi-valent, reflecting the microcosm and the macrocosm as in the phrase "As without, so within" (yatha bahyam tatha ’dhyatmam iti) fromAbhayakaragupta'sNispannayogavali.[84]
TheSanskrit term "vajra" denoted athunderbolt like a legendary weapon and divine attribute that was made from anadamantine, or an indestructible substance which could, therefore, pierce and penetrate any obstacle orobfuscation. It is the weapon of choice ofIndra, the King of theDevas. As a secondary meaning, "vajra" symbolizes the ultimate nature of things which is described in the tantras as translucent, pure and radiant, but also indestructible and indivisible. It is also symbolic of the power of tantric methods to achieve its goals.[85]
A vajra is also a scepter-like ritual object (Standard Tibetan:རྡོ་རྗེ་dorje), which has a sphere (and sometimes agankyil) at its centre, and a variable number of spokes, 3, 5 or 9 at each end (depending on thesadhana), enfolding either end of the rod. The vajra is often traditionally employed in tantric rituals in combination with thebell orghanta; symbolically, the vajra may representmethod as well as great bliss and the bell stands forwisdom, specifically thewisdom realizing emptiness. The union of the two sets of spokes at the center of the wheel is said to symbolize the unity of wisdom (prajña) and compassion (karuna) as well as the sexual union of male and female deities.[86]
Chöd ritual, showing the use ofDamaru drum and hand-bell, as well as theKangling (thighbone trumpet)
Representations of the deity, such as statues (murti), paintings (thangka), or mandala, are often employed as an aid tovisualization, indeity yoga. The use of visual aids, particularly microcosmic/macrocosmic diagrams, known asmandalas, is another unique feature of Buddhist Tantra. Mandalas are symbolic depictions of the sacred space of the awakened Buddhas andBodhisattvas as well as of the inner workings of the human person.[87] The macrocosmic symbolism of the mandala then, also represents the forces of the human body. The explanatory tantra of theGuhyasamaja tantra, theVajramala, states: "The body becomes a palace, the hallowed basis of all the Buddhas."[88]
Mandalas are alsosacred enclosures,sacred architecture that house and contain the uncontainable essence of a central deity oryidam and their retinue. In the bookThe World of Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lama describes mandalas thus: "This is the celestial mansion, the pure residence of the deity." TheFive Tathagatas or 'Five Buddhas', along with the figure of theAdi-Buddha, are central to many Vajrayana mandalas as they represent the "five wisdoms", which are the five primary aspects of primordial wisdom orBuddha-nature.[89]
All ritual in Vajrayana practice can be seen as aiding in this process of visualization and identification. The practitioner can use various hand implements such as avajra, bell, hand-drum (damaru) or a ritual dagger (phurba), but also ritual hand gestures (mudras) can be made, special chanting techniques can be used, and in elaborate offering rituals or initiations, many more ritual implements and tools are used, each with an elaborate symbolic meaning to create a special environment for practice. Vajrayana has thus become a major inspiration in traditionalTibetan art.
There is an extended body of texts associated with Buddhist Tantra, including the "tantras" themselves, tantric commentaries andshastras,sadhanas (liturgical texts), ritual manuals (Chinese: 儀軌;Pinyin:Yíguǐ;Rōmaji:Giki), dharanis, poems or songs (dohas),termas and so on. According to Harunaga Isaacson,
Though we do not know precisely at present just how many Indian tantric Buddhist texts survive today in the language in which they were written, their number is certainly over one thousand five hundred; I suspect indeed over two thousand. A large part of this body of texts has also been translated into Tibetan, and a smaller part into Chinese. Aside from these, there are perhaps another two thousand or more works that are known today only from such translations. We can be certain as well that many others are lost to us forever, in whatever form. Of the texts that survive a very small proportion has been published; an almost insignificant percentage has been edited or translated reliably.[90]
Vajrayāna texts exhibit a wide range of literary characteristics—usually a mix of verse and prose, almost always in a Sanskrit that "transgresses frequently against classical norms of grammar and usage," although also occasionally in various Middle Indic dialects or elegant classical Sanskrit.[90]
InTibetan Buddhism, a large number of tantric works are widely studied and different schools focus on the study and practice of different cycles of texts. According toGeoffrey Samuel,
TheDunhuang manuscripts also contain Tibetan Tantric manuscripts. Dalton and Schaik (2007, revised) provide an excellent online catalogue listing 350 Tibetan Tantric Manuscripts] fromDunhuang in the Stein Collection of theBritish Library which is currently fully accessible online in discrete digitized manuscripts.[94] With the Wylie transcription of the manuscripts they are to be made discoverable online in the future.[95] These 350 texts are just a small portion of the vast cache of the Dunhuang manuscripts.
Map showing the dominantBuddhist tradition throughout Asia. Vajrayana (in the form of Tibetan Buddhism) dominates the Himalayan regions and in theMongolian regions.TheNīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī engraved on a stele. Temple Fo Ding Shan Chao Sheng in Sanyi Township,Taiwan. Erected in June 2005.
Other traditions like contemporaryChinese Buddhism,Japanese Zen,Korean Buddhism, andVietnamese Buddhism also make use of esoteric (Chinese: mijiao, Japanese:mikkyo) or mantrayana methods to a lesser extent. In many Asian Mahayana Buddhist traditions, esoteric methods are used as a complement, not as the central practice. This mainly involves the recitation of mantras (like theten small mantras) and various populardharanis. However, certain revival movements have attempted to establish new esoteric schools in mainland East Asia such asMantra School Bright Lineage (in China) and the South KoreanJingak Order.
There was strong connection between thePalas inBengal,Srivijaya inNusantara, and the kingdoms inEast Asia through the sea route. Medieval monks were a prime factor in the spread of esoteric Buddhism.[96]
A map depicting the spread of Esoteric Buddhism in Southeast and Eastern Eurasia
The distinction between mantrayana traditions is not always rigid. For example, thetantra sections of theTibetan Buddhist canon of texts sometimes include material not usually thought of as tantric outside the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, such as the widely recitedHeart Sutra[97] and even versions of some material found in thePali Canon.[a]
TheJing'an Temple inShanghai, China, which promotes the Chinese Zhenyan (Mantrayana) tradition.
Esoteric and Tantric teachings followed the same route into northernChina asBuddhism itself, arriving via theSilk Road and Southeast Asian Maritime trade routes sometime during the first half of the 7th century, during theTang dynasty and received sanction from the emperors of the Tang dynasty. During this time, three great masters came from India to China:Śubhakarasiṃha,Vajrabodhi, andAmoghavajra who translated key texts and founded theZhenyan (真言, "true word", "mantra") tradition.[98]
Zhenyan was also brought toJapan asShingon during this period. This tradition focused on tantras like theMahavairocana tantra, and unlike Tibetan Buddhism, it does not employ the antinomian and radical tantrism of theAnuttarayoga Tantras. The prestige of this tradition eventually influenced other schools ofChinese Buddhism such asChan andTiantai to adopt various esoteric practices over time, leading to a merging of teachings between the various schools.[99][100][101] During theYuan dynasty, theMongol emperors madeTibetan Buddhism the official religion of China, and Tibetan lamas were given patronage at the court.[102] Imperial support of Tibetan Vajrayana continued into the Ming and Qing dynasties.
Today, esoteric traditions are deeply embedded in mainstream Chinese Buddhism and expressed through various rituals which make use of tantric mantra and dhāraṇī and the veneration of certain tantric deities likeCundi andAcala.[103] One example of esoteric teachings still practiced in many Chinese Buddhist monasteries is theŚūraṅgama Sūtra and the dhāraṇī revealed within it, theŚūraṅgama Mantra, which are especially influential in the Chinese Chan tradition.[104]
A recent development is known as the "tantric revival movement" (mijiao fuxing yundong 密教復興運動) which involved the revival of Chinese Esoteric schools by Chinese students of Japanese Shingon.[105] Some important figures of this revival include Wang Hongyuan 王弘願 (1876–1937), and Guru Wuguang (悟光上師 (1918–2000), both trained in Shingon and went on to spread Shingon teachings in the Chinese speaking world.[106][107] These revivalist lineages exist in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Malaysia. Though they draw mainly from Shingon teachings, they have also adopted someTibetan Buddhist elements.[108]
Another form of esoteric Buddhism in China is the related but unique tradition ofAzhaliism, which is practiced among theBai people of China and veneratesMahakala as a major deity.[109][110]
The Shingon school is found inJapan and includes practices, known in Japan asMikkyō ("Esoteric (or Mystery) Teaching"), which are similar in concept to those in Vajrayana Buddhism. The lineage for Shingon Buddhism differs from that of Tibetan Vajrayana, having emerged fromIndia during the 9th–11th centuries in thePala Dynasty andCentral Asia (viaChina) and is based on earlier versions of the Indian texts than the Tibetan lineage. Shingon shares material withTibetan Buddhism – such as the esoteric sutras (calledTantras in Tibetan Buddhism) andmandalas – but the actual practices are not related.
The primary texts of Shingon Buddhism are theMahavairocana Sutra andVajrasekhara Sutra. The founder of Shingon Buddhism wasKukai, a Japanese monk who studied in China in the 9th century during the Tang dynasty and brought back Vajrayana scriptures, techniques and mandalas then popular in China. The school was merged into other schools in China towards the end of the Tang dynasty but was sectarian in Japan. Shingon is one of the few remaining branches of Buddhism in the world that continues to use thesiddham script of theSanskrit language.
Although the Tendai school in China and Japan does employ some esoteric practices, these rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the exoteric teachings of theLotus Sutra. By chantingmantras, maintaining mudras, or practicing certain forms of meditation,Tendai maintains that one is able to understand sense experiences as taught by the Buddha, havefaith that one is innately an enlightened being, and that one can attain enlightenment within the current lifetime.
Esoteric Buddhist practices (known asmilgyo, 密教) and texts arrived inKorea during the initial introduction of Buddhism to the region in 372 CE.[111] Esoteric Buddhism was supported by the royalty of bothUnified Silla (668–935) andGoryeo Dynasty (918–1392).[111] During the Goryeo Dynasty esoteric practices were common within large sects like theSeon school, and theHwaeom school as well as smaller esoteric sects like the Sinin (mudra) and Ch'ongji (Dharani) schools. During the era of the Mongol occupation (1251–1350s), Tibetan Buddhism also existed in Korea though it never gained a foothold there.[112]
During theJoseon dynasty, Esoteric Buddhist schools were forced to merge with the Seon and Kyo schools, becoming the ritual specialists. With the decline of Buddhism in Korea, Esoteric Buddhism mostly died out, save for a few traces in the rituals of theJogye Order andTaego Order.[112]
There are five esoteric Buddhist schools in modern day South Korea:Jingak Order, Jineon Order, Chongji Order, Jisong Order, and Cheonhwa Buddhism.[113] According to Henrik H. Sørensen, the Jineon and Jingak Orders, "have absolutely no historical link with the Korean Buddhist tradition per se but are late constructs based in large measures on Japanese Shingon Buddhism."[112]
Vietnamese Buddhist esotericism is known asMật giáo orMật Tông and is a common part of Vietnamese Mahayana Buddhism (along withPure Land practice andThien).[114] Commonly recited esoteric texts includeUṣṇīṣavijayadhāraṇī, theNīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī and theŚūraṅgama mantra. According to Quang Minh Thich "at present, it is still the norm in Vietnamese Buddhist temples, both in Vietnam and abroad, that these mantras, as elements of the Mantrayana, are recited either in their distinctive chanted sessions or in conjunction with other popular Buddhist scriptures. In function, the Vietnamese Tantric practices serve as a complement to the practices of Zen and Pure Land, not as an independent tradition."[114]
The first Vietnamese monk we know of who studied Vajrayana was Master Van Ky (c. 7th century) who received initiation in the kingdom ofSrivijaya from a certain Jñanabhadra (Tri Hien) as reported byYijing.[115] By the 12th century (under theLý dynasty), esoteric Buddhism was widespread in Vietnam, and was especially favored by theVô Ngôn Thông school as well as by theVinitaruci school.[116] One famous esoteric master of this period wasTừ Đạo Hạnh.[116] He brought back various texts and practices from Burma. He became famous as a powerful magician.[117] He was fond of theMahākaruṇika Dhāraṇī.[116] He also spread esoteric teachings throughout Vietnam and liberalized their practice, making them less dependent on reincarnation lineages (similar to Tibetantulkus).[118] Another promoter of esoteric Buddhism during this period was Sùng Phạm (1004-1078) of Phap Van pagoda who studied in India for nine years before returning to Vietnam and was the teacher of the influential esoteric master Tri Bat.[116] Phap Loa (1284-1330), a leader of theTruc Lam school, was another very influential Vietnamese esoteric master. He is known for establishing esoteric abhiseka (initiation) ceremonies as well as Huayan (Hoa Nghiêm) assemblies. He also wrote various texts on esoteric topics.[119]
Chinese Buddhist esotericism also influenced Vietnamese esotericism during the medieval period, especially theHuayan Esotericism of Daoshen'sXianmi yuantong chengfo xinyao ji (顯密圓通成佛心要集Collection of Essentials for the Attainment of Buddhahood by Total [Inter-]Penetration of the Esoteric and the Exoteric, T1955).
Some modern teachers and organizations focus specifically on Vietnamese esoteric Buddhism.Thích Viên Đức (1932-1980) was one important modern promoter of Esoteric Buddhism. He is known for translating a collection of Esoteric Buddhist texts, contributing to the dissemination of Esoteric Buddhism in Vietnam. Thích Viên Đức promoted esoteric Buddhist teachings as the fastest path to enlightenment. He established numerous communities in southern Vietnam and was also known as a healer. He also met with Tibetan lamas and Japanese Buddhists.[120] Another modern Vietnamese esoteric organization isMat Giao Friendship Association who publishes Phước Triệu'sQuintessence of Esoteric Buddhism (2004). Esoteric practices are also currently associated with theThầy Temple inGreater Hanoi. Vietnamese esotericism can also be quite sycretic, borrowing from Chinese, Japanese and Tibetan Buddhism.
This tradition practices and studies a set of tantric texts and commentaries associated with the more "left hand" (vamachara) tantras, which are not part of East Asian Esoteric Buddhism. These tantras (sometimes termed 'Anuttarayoga tantras' include many transgressive elements, such as sexual and mortuary symbolism that is not shared by the earlier tantras that are studied in East Asian Buddhism. These texts were translated intoClassical Tibetan during the "New translation period" (10th–12th centuries). Tibetan Buddhism also includes numerous native Tibetan developments, such as thetulku system, newsadhana texts, Tibetan scholastic works,Dzogchen literature andTerma literature. There are four major traditions or schools:Nyingma,Sakya,Kagyu, andGelug.
In the pre-modern era, Tibetan Buddhism spread outside of Tibet primarily due to the influence of theMongolYuan dynasty (1271–1368), founded byKublai Khan, which ruledChina,Mongolia and easternSiberia. In themodern era it has spread outside of Asia due to the efforts of theTibetan diaspora (1959 onwards).
The Tibetan Buddhist tradition is today found in Tibet,Bhutan, northernIndia,Nepal, southwestern and northernChina,Mongolia and various constituentrepublics ofRussia that are adjacent to the area, such asAmur Oblast,Buryatia,Zabaykalsky Krai, theTuva Republic andKhabarovsk Krai. Tibetan Buddhism is also the main religion inKalmykia. It has also spread to Western countries and there are now international networks of Tibetan Buddhist temples and meditation centers in the Western world from all four schools.
Newar Buddhism is practiced byNewars inNepal. It is the only form of Vajrayana Buddhism in which the scriptures are written inSanskrit and this tradition has preserved many Vajrayana texts in this language. Its priests do not follow celibacy and are calledvajracharya (literally "diamond-thunderbolt carriers").
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism refers to the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in the Indonesian islands ofJava andSumatra before the rise and dominance ofIslam in the region (13–16th centuries). The Buddhist empire ofSrivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) was a major center of Esoteric Buddhist learning which drew Chinese monks such asYijing and Indian scholars likeAtiśa.[124] The temple complex atBorobudur in central Java, built by theShailendra dynasty also reflects strong Tantric or at least proto-tantric influences, particularly of the cult ofVairocana.[125][126]
Influences and movements into Java
Esoteric Sinhalese Buddhism spreading to Java.
Gurjara pilgrims in Java
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism may have also reached thePhilippines, possibly establishing the first form ofBuddhism in the Philippines. The few Buddhist artifacts that have been found in the islands reflect the iconography of Srivijaya's Vajrayana.[127]
Some traditions are related to Vajrayana, but are not to be seen as "Vajrayana" or "Mantrayana" proper. Vajrayana here referring to the Buddhist tradition based on the tantric literature of North Indian Mahayana, theBuddhist tantras and the works of theNalanda -Vikramashila masters and the Buddhistmahasiddhas. However, these related traditions may have been influenced by Vajrayana proper and have borrowed practices from Vajrayana schools.
Shugendō was founded in 7th-century Japan by the asceticEn no Gyōja, based on theQueen's Peacocks Sutra. With its origins in the solitaryhijiri back in the 7th century, Shugendō evolved as a sort of amalgamation between Esoteric Buddhism, Shinto and several other religious influences includingTaoism. Buddhism and Shinto were amalgamated in theshinbutsu shūgō, and Kūkai's syncretic religion held wide sway up until the end of theEdo period, coexisting with Shinto elements within Shugendō[128]
In 1613 during the Edo period, theTokugawa Shogunate issued a regulation obliging Shugendō temples to belong to either Shingon or Tendai temples. During theMeiji Restoration, when Shinto was declared an independent state religion separate from Buddhism, Shugendō was banned as a superstition not fit for a new, enlightened Japan. Some Shugendō temples converted themselves into various officially approved Shintō denominations. In modern times, Shugendō is practiced mainly by Tendai and Shingon sects, retaining an influence on modernJapanese religion andculture.[129]
"Southern Esoteric Buddhism" or Borān kammaṭṭhāna ('ancient practices') is a term for esoteric forms of Buddhism fromSoutheast Asia, whereTheravada Buddhism is dominant. The monks of the Sri Lankan,Abhayagiri vihara once practiced forms of tantra which were popular in the island.[130] Another tradition of this type wasAri Buddhism, which was common inBurma. The Tantric Buddhist 'Yogāvacara' tradition was a major Buddhist tradition inCambodia,Laos andThailand well into the modern era.[131]
Southern Esoteric Buddhism is a unique Southeast Asian development based onTheravadaAbhidhamma andPali language sources. As such, it has no direct connection to the Indian "Vajrayana" of the Buddhist tantras, the Indian mahasiddhas and the Nalanda-Vikramashila traditions.
Serious Vajrayana academic study in the Western world is in early stages due to the following obstacles:[132]
Although a large number of Tantric scriptures are extant, they have not been formally ordered or systematized.
Due to the esoteric initiatory nature of the tradition, many practitioners will not divulge information or sources of their information.
As with many different subjects, it must be studied in context and with a long history spanning many different cultures.
Ritual, as well as doctrine, need to be investigated.
Buddhist tantric practice is categorized as secret practice; this is to avoid misinformed people from harmfully misusing the practices. A method to keep this secrecy is that tantric initiation is required from a master before any instructions can be received about the actual practice. During the initiation procedure in the highest class of tantra (such as the Kalachakra), students must take the tantric vows which commit them to such secrecy.[133] "Explaining general tantra theory in a scholarly manner, not sufficient for practice, is likewise not a root downfall. Nevertheless, it weakens the effectiveness of our tantric practice."[134]
The terminology associated with Vajrayana Buddhism can be confusing. Most of the terms originated in theSanskrit language of tantricIndian Buddhism and may have passed through other cultures, notably those of Japan and Tibet, before translation for the modern reader. Further complications arise as seemingly equivalent terms can have subtle variations in use and meaning according to context, the time and place of use. A third problem is that the Vajrayana texts employ the tantric tradition oftwilight language, a means of instruction that is deliberately coded. These obscure teaching methods relying onsymbolism as well assynonym,metaphor andword association add to the difficulties faced by those attempting to understand Vajrayana Buddhism:
In the Vajrayana tradition, now preserved mainly in Tibetan lineages, it has long been recognized that certain important teachings are expressed in a form of secret symbolic language known assaṃdhyā-bhāṣā, 'Twilight Language'.Mudrās andmantras,maṇḍalas andcakras, those mysterious devices and diagrams that were so much in vogue in the pseudo-Buddhisthippie culture of the 1960s, were all examples of Twilight Language [...][135]
The term Tantric Buddhism was not one originally used by those who practiced it. As scholar Isabelle Onians explains:
"Tantric Buddhism" [...] is not the transcription of a native term, but a rather modern coinage, if not totally occidental. For the equivalent Sanskrittāntrika is found, but not in Buddhist texts.Tāntrika is a term denoting someone who follows the teachings of scriptures known as Tantras, but only inSaivism, not Buddhism [...] Tantric Buddhism is a name for a phenomenon which calls itself, in Sanskrit, Mantranaya, Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna or Mantramahāyāna (and apparently never Tantrayāna). Its practitioners are known asmantrins,yogis, orsādhakas. Thus, our use of the anglicised adjective “Tantric” for the Buddhist religion taught in Tantras is not native to the tradition, but is a borrowed term which serves its purpose.[136]
^Dalton, Jacob &van Schaik, Sam (2007). Catalogue of the Tibetan Tantric Manuscripts from Dunhuang in the Stein Collection [Online]. Second electronic edition. International Dunhuang Project. Source:[1]Archived 2008-05-28 at theWayback Machine (accessed: Tuesday February 2, 2010)
^Kim (김/金), Bang-ryong (방룡/邦龍) (1998)."한국불교계 신생종단의 성립과 사상" [Establishment and Thoughts on New Sects of South Korean Buddhism].Hanguk Jonggyo (한국종교) (in Korean).23.Iksan: Wonkwang University Research Center of Religions (원광대학교 종교문제연구소): 204.密敎系 종단으로는 1) 大韓佛敎眞覺宗 2) 大韓佛敎眞言宗 3) 佛敎總持宗 4) 眞言佛敎持誦宗 5) 天華佛敎 [The estoteric Buddhist sects (in South Korea) are Jingak Order, Jineon Order, Chongji Order, Jisong Order, and Cheonhwa Buddhism.]
^J. Takakusu (2005). A Record of the Buddhist Religion : As Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671-695)/I-Tsing. New Delhi, AES.ISBN81-206-1622-7.
^Levenda, Peter. Tantric Temples: Eros and Magic in Java, page 99.
^Fontein, Jan. Entering the Dharmadhātu: A Study of the <Gandavyūha Reliefs of Borobudur, page 233.
^Laszlo Legeza, "Tantric Elements in Pre-Hispanic Gold Art," Arts of Asia, 1988, 4:129-133.
^Cousins, L.S. (1997), "Aspects of Southern Esoteric Buddhism", in Peter Connolly and Sue Hamilton (eds.), Indian Insights: Buddhism, Brahmanism and Bhakd Papers from the Annual Spalding Symposium on Indian Religions, Luzac Oriental, London: 185-207, 410.ISBN1-898942-153
^Kate Crosby, Traditional Theravada Meditation and its Modern-Era Suppression Hong Kong: Buddha Dharma Centre of Hong Kong, 2013,ISBN978-9881682024
^Bucknell, Roderick & Stuart-Fox, Martin (1986).The Twilight Language: Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism. Curzon Press: London.ISBN0-312-82540-4.
^Isabelle Onians, "Tantric Buddhist Apologetics, or Antinomianism as a Norm," D.Phil. dissertation, Oxford, Trinity Term 2001 pg 8
Akira, Hirakawa (1993). Paul Groner (ed.).History of Indian Buddhism. Translated by Paul Groner. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.ISBN9780824812034.
Baruah, Bibhuti (2000).Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. India: Sarup & Sons.ISBN978-81-7625-152-5.
Dowman, Keith (tr.) (1985).Masters of Mahāmudrā: Songs and Histories of the Eighty-four Buddhist Siddhas. Ithaca, New York: State University of New York Press.ISBN978-0-88706-158-5.
Duckworth, Douglas (2015). "Tibetan Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna". In Emmanuel, Steven M. (ed.).A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy. Wiley.ISBN978-1-119-14466-3.
Garson, Nathaniel DeWitt (2004).Penetrating the Secret Essence Tantra: Context and Philosophy in the Mahayoga System of rNying-ma Tantra.[full citation needed]
Gray, David B., ed. (2007).The Cakrasamvara Tantra: The Discourse of Śrī Heruka (Śrīherukābhidhāna). American Institute of Buddhist Studies at Columbia University.ISBN978-0-9753734-6-0.
Huber, Toni (2008).The Holy Land Reborn: Pilgrimage and the Tibetan Reinvention of Buddhist India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-35648-8.
Isaacson, Harunaga (1998). "Tantric Buddhism in India (from c. 800 to c. 1200)".Buddhismus in Geschichte und Gegenwart.II. Hamburg:23–49.
Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo (2002).The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture. Routledge.ISBN978-0-7007-1762-0.
Lü, Jianfu (2017).Chinese and Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism. Studies on East Asian Religions. Vol. 1. Brill.ISBN978-90-04-34050-3.
Mullin, Glenn H.;Tsongkhapa (2005).The Six Yogas Of Naropa, Tsongkhapa's Commentary Entitled A Book Of Three Inspirations A Treatise On The Stages Of Training In The Profound Path Of Naro's Six Dharmas. Snow Lion Publications.ISBN1-55939-234-7.
Orzech, Charles D. (2006). "The 'Great Teaching of Yoga', the Chinese Appropriation of the Tantras, and the Question of Esoteric Buddhism".Journal of Chinese Religions.34 (1). Informa UK Limited:29–78.doi:10.1179/073776906803525165.ISSN0737-769X.
Osto, Douglas (June 2009). "'Proto–Tantric' Elements in the Gandavyuha Sutra".Journal of Religious History.33 (2):165–177.doi:10.1111/j.1467-9809.2009.00792.x.
Rongzom Chözang; Köppl, Heidi I. (trans.) (2008).Establishing Appearances as Divine: Rongzom Chözang on Reasoning, Madhyamaka, and Purity. Snow Lion. pp. 95–108.ISBN978-1-55939-288-4.
Ray, Reginald A. (2001).Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet. Boston: Shambhala Publications.ISBN9781570627729.
Sanderson, A. (1994). "Buddhism into the Year 2000".Vajrayāna: Origin and Function. Dhammakaya Foundation. pp. 87–102.
Sanderson, Alexis (2009). "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period". In Einoo, Shingo (ed.).Genesis and Development of Tantrism. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series. Vol. 23. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo.[ISBN missing]
Schumann, Hans Wolfgang (1974).Buddhism: an outline of its teachings and schools. Theosophical Pub. House.[ISBN missing]
Sharf, Robert H. (2002).Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism: A Reading of the Treasure Store Treatise. University of Hawai'i Press.ISBN978-0-8248-2443-3.
Simmer-Brown, Judith (2002).Dakini's Warm Breath: The Feminine Principle in Tibetan Buddhism.[full citation needed]
Snellgrove, David L. (1987).Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors. London: Serindia.[ISBN missing]
Tai Tu, Nguyen (2008).The History of Buddhism in Vietnam: Institute of Philosophy. Vietnamese Academy of Social Sciences The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy.[ISBN missing]
Tajima, Ryujun (1992).Etude sur le Mahavairocana-sutra (dainichikyo) (in French). France: A. Maisonneuve.ISBN978-2-7200-1084-2.
Tsongkhapa (2005).Tantric Ethics: An Explanation of the Precepts for Buddhist Vajrayana Practice. Translated by Gareth Sparham. Wisdom Publications.ISBN0-86171-290-0.
Verrill, Wayne (2012).The Yogini's Eye: Comprehensive Introduction to Buddhist Tantra.[full citation needed]
Wayman, Alex (1977).Yoga of the Guhyasamājatantra: The Arcane Lore of Forty Verses: a Buddhist Tantra Commentary. Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0872-0.
Wayman, Alex (2008).The Buddhist Tantras: Light on Indo-Tibetan Esotericism. Routledge.[ISBN missing]
White, David Gordon, ed. (2000).Tantra in Practice. Princeton University Press.ISBN0-691-05779-6.
Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony; Wynne, Alexander (2012).Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-57179-1.
Arnold, Edward A., ed. (2009).As Long As Space Endures: Essays on the Kalacakra Tantra in Honor of H.H. the Dalai Lama. Snow Lion Publications.ISBN978-1-55939-303-4.
Banerji, S. C. (1977).Tantra in Bengal: A Study in Its Origin, Development and Influence. Manohar.ISBN978-81-85425-63-4.
Kongtrul, Jamgon; Guarisco, Elio; McLeod, Ingrid (2004).Systems of Buddhist Tantra:The Indestructible Way of Secret Mantra. The Treasury of Knowledge (book 6 part 4). Ithaca: Snow Lion.ISBN978-1-55939-210-5.
Kongtrul, Jamgon; Harding, Sarah (2007).Esoteric Instructions: A Detailed Presentation of the Process of Meditation in Vajrayana. The Treasury of Knowledge (book 8 part 4). Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications.ISBN978-1-55939-284-6.
Kongtrul, Jamgon; Guarisco, Elio; McLeod, Ingrid (2008).The Elements of Tantric Practice:A General Exposition of the Process of Meditation in the Indestructible Way of Secret Mantra. The Treasury of Knowledge (book 8 part 3). Ithaca: Snow Lion.ISBN978-1-55939-305-8.
Kongtrul, Jamgon;Barron, Richard (2010).Journey and Goal: An Analysis of the Spiritual Paths and Levels to be Traversed and the Consummate Fruition state. The Treasury of Knowledge (books 9 & 10). Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications. pp. 159–251,333–451.ISBN978-1-55939-360-7.
Panchen, Ngari; Dudjom Rinpoche (1996).Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows. Wisdom Publications.ISBN0-86171-083-5.
Patrul Rinpoche (1994). Brown, Kerry; Sharma, Sima (eds.).The Words of My Perfect Teacher. Translated by the Padmakara Translation Group. San Francisco, California: HarperCollinsPublishers.ISBN978-0-06-066449-7.
Snelling, John (1987).The Buddhist Handbook: A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice. London: Century Paperbacks.ISBN978-0-7126-1554-9.
Wedemeyer, Christian K., ed. (2007).Āryadeva's Lamp that Integrates the Practices (Caryāmelāpakapradīpa): The Gradual Path of Vajrayāna Buddhism according to the Esoteric Community Noble Tradition. New York: American Institute of Buddhist Studies at Columbia University.ISBN978-0-9753734-5-3.
_(8697431158).jpg)
.jpg)
%2c_view_2%2c_collected_by_Sven_Hedin_in_1930%2c_Efi_Khalkha_temple%2c_Chahar%2c_Inner_Mongolia_-_%25C3%2596stasiatiska_museet%2c_Stockholm_-_DSC09315.JPG)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
%2c_14th_century_Art_Institute_of_Chicago.jpg)
2.jpg)
.svg)
