Guan Yu | |
|---|---|
| 關羽 | |
 A portrait of Guan Yu in theSancai Tuhui | |
| General of the Vanguard (前將軍) | |
| In office 219 (219) – 220 (220) | |
| Monarchs |
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| General Who Defeats Bandits (盪寇將軍; under Liu Bei) | |
| In office c. 211 – 219 (219) | |
| Monarch | Emperor Xian of Han |
| Administrator of Xiangyang (襄陽太守; under Liu Bei) | |
| In office c. 211 – 219 (219) | |
| Monarch | Emperor Xian of Han |
| Lieutenant-general (偏將軍) | |
| In office 200 (200) – c. 211 | |
| Monarch | Emperor Xian of Han |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Unknown Xie County,Hedong Commandery, Han dynasty (present-dayYuncheng, Shanxi) |
| Died | January or February 220[a] Linju County, Xiangyang Commandery, Han dynasty (present-dayNanzhang County, Hubei) |
| Children | |
| Occupation | General |
| Courtesy name | Yunchang (雲長) |
| Posthumous name | Marquis Zhuangmou (壯繆侯) |
| Peerage | Marquis of Hanshou Village(漢壽亭侯) |
| Deity names |
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| Other names |
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| Guan Yu | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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.svg) "Guan Yu" intraditional (top) andsimplified (bottom) Chinese characters | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 關羽 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 关羽 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hanyu Pinyin | Guān Yǔⓘ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Guan Yu ([kwán ỳ] ⓘ;d. January or February 220[a]),courtesy nameYunchang, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlordLiu Bei during the lateEastern Han dynasty of China. Along withZhang Fei, he shared a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and accompanied him on most of his early exploits. Guan Yu played a significant role in the events leading up to theend of the Han dynasty and the establishment of Liu Bei's state ofShu Han during theThree Kingdoms period. While he is remembered for his loyalty towards Liu Bei, he is also known for repayingCao Cao's kindness by slayingYan Liang, a general under Cao Cao's rivalYuan Shao, at theBattle of Boma. After Liu Bei gained control ofYi Province in 214, Guan Yu remained inJing Province to govern and defend the area for about seven years. In 219, while he was away fightingCao Cao's forces at theBattle of Fancheng, Liu Bei's allySun Quan broke the Sun–Liu alliance and sent his generalLü Meng toconquer Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. By the time Guan Yu learned about the loss of Jing Province after his defeat at Fancheng, it was too late. He was subsequently captured in an ambush by Sun Quan's forces and executed at Linju,Xiangyang Commandery (臨沮, present-dayNanzhang County,Xiangyang City,Hubei).[2]
Guan Yu's life was lionised and his achievements were glorified to such an extent after his death that he was deified during theSui dynasty. Through generations of storytelling, culminating in the 14th-century historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms, his deeds and moral qualities have been emphasized immensely, making Guan Yu one of East Asia's most popular paradigms of loyalty and righteousness. He is remembered as aculture hero in Chinese culture and is still worshipped by many people of Chinese descent in China, Taiwan, and other countries today. In religious devotion, he is reverentially called the "Emperor Guan" (Guān Dì) or "Lord Guan" (Guān Gōng). He is a deity worshipped inChinese folk religion, popularConfucianism,Taoism, andChinese Buddhism, and small shrines to him are almost ubiquitous in traditional Chinese shops and restaurants.
The authoritative historical source on Guan Yu's life is theRecords of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) written byChen Shou in the third century. During the fifth century,Pei Songzhiannotated theSanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal comments. Some alternative texts used in the annotations to Guan Yu's biography include:Shu Ji (Records of Shu), by Wang Yin;Wei Shu (Book of Wei), byWang Chen,Xun Yi andRuan Ji;Jiang Biao Zhuan, by Yu Pu;Fu Zi, byFu Xuan;Dianlüe, byYu Huan;Wu Li (History of Wu), by Hu Chong; andChronicles of Huayang, byChang Qu.
No explicit descriptions of Guan Yu's physical appearance exist in historical records. However, theSanguozhi recorded thatZhuge Liang once referred to Guan Yu as having a "peerless beard".[b]
Traditionally, Guan Yu is portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long, lush beard. The idea of his red face may have been derived from a description of him in Chapter 1 of the 14th-century historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms, where the following passage appears:[3]
"Xuande took a look at the man, who stood at a height of ninechi,[c] and had a twochi[d] long beard; his face was of the colour of a darkzao,[e] with lips that were red and plump; his eyes were like those of a crimson phoenix,[f] and his eyebrows resembled recliningsilkworms.[g] He had a dignified air and looked quite majestic."
Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have been borrowed from opera representation, where red faces represented loyalty and righteousness.[citation needed] In illustrations ofRomance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu is traditionally depicted wearing a green robe over his body armour.
InRomance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu's weapon was aguandao namedGreen Dragon Crescent Blade, which resembled aglaive and was said to weigh 82catties (about 49 kg or 108 lbs).[7]
Guan Yu was from Xie County (解縣),Hedong Commandery, which is present-dayYuncheng,Shanxi. His originalcourtesy name was Changsheng (長生).[Sanguozhi 1] He was very studious, and was interested in the ancient history bookZuo zhuan and could fluently recite lines from it.[Sanguozhi others 1][Sanguozhi zhu 1] He fled from his hometown for unknown reasons[h] and went toZhuo Commandery. When theYellow Turban Rebellion broke out in the 180s, Guan Yu andZhang Fei joined a volunteer militia formed byLiu Bei, and they assisted a colonelZou Jing in suppressing the revolt.[Sanguozhi 2][Sanguozhi others 2] Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were known as stalwart and strong men, which made them talented fighters.[9]
When Liu Bei was appointed as the Minister (相) ofPingyuan, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were appointed as Majors of Separate Command (别部司马), each commanding detachments of soldiers under Liu Bei. Liu Bei cherished them as if they were his own brothers and the three of them were as close as brothers to the point of sharing the same room, sleeping on the same mat and eating from the same pot.[10] Zhang Fei and Guan Yu protected Liu Bei whenever there were large crowds of people and also stood guard beside him when he sat down at meetings all day long. They followed him on his exploits and were always ready to face any danger and hardship.[Sanguozhi 3] And for their military prowess were appraised as "enemy of ten-thousand".[Sanguozhi 4] Guan Yu was noted for his kindness towards his soldiers and fealty to Liu Bei akin to family, but had no respect for the gentry and treated them without courtesy.[Sanguozhi others 3][Sanguozhi 5][Sanguozhi others 4]
Liu Bei and his men followedCao Cao back to the imperial capitalXu after their victory overLü Bu at theBattle of Xiapi in 198. About a year later, Liu Bei and his followers escaped from Xu under the pretext of helping Cao Cao lead an army to attackYuan Shu. Liu Bei went toXu Province, killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou (車冑), and seized control of the province. He moved toXiaopei and left Guan Yu in charge of the provincial capitalXiapi.[Sanguozhi 6][Sanguozhi others 5][Sanguozhi zhu 2]
In 200, Cao Cao led his forces to attack Liu Bei, defeated him and retook Xu Province. Liu Bei fled to northern China and found refuge under Cao Cao's rivalYuan Shao, while Guan Yu was captured by Cao Cao's forces and brought back to Xu. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu respectfully and askedEmperor Xian to appoint Guan Yu as a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍).[Sanguozhi 7][Sanguozhi others 6]
Later that year, Yuan Shao sent his generalYan Liang to lead an army to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Boma (白馬; near present-dayHua County,Henan), which was defended by Liu Yan (劉延). Cao Cao sentZhang Liao and Guan Yu to lead the vanguard to engage the enemy. In the midst of battle, Guan Yu recognised Yan Liang's parasol so he charged towards Yan Liang, decapitated him and returned with his head. Yan Liang's men could not stop him. With Yan Liang's death, the siege on Boma was lifted. On Cao Cao's recommendation, Emperor Xian awarded Guan Yu the peerage of "Marquis[i] of Hanshou Village" (漢壽亭侯).[Sanguozhi 8]
Although Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character, he also sensed that Guan Yu had no intention of serving under him for long. He told Zhang Liao, "Why don't you make use of your friendship with Guan Yu to find out what he wants?" When Zhang Liao asked him, Guan Yu replied, "I am aware that Lord Cao treats me very generously. However, I have also received many favours from General Liu and I have sworn to follow him until I die. I cannot break my oath. I will leave eventually, so maybe you can help me convey my message to Lord Cao." Zhang Liao did so, and Cao Cao was even more impressed with Guan Yu.[Sanguozhi 9] TheFu Zi gave a slightly different account of this incident. It recorded that Zhang Liao faced a dilemma of whether or not to convey Guan Yu's message to Cao Cao: if he did, Cao Cao might execute Guan Yu; if he did not, he would be failing in his service to Cao Cao. He sighed, "Lord Cao is my superior and he is like a father to me, while Guan Yu is like a brother to me." He eventually decided to tell Cao Cao. Cao Cao said, "A subject who serves his lord but doesn't forget his origins is truly a man of righteousness. When do you think he will leave?" Zhang Liao replied, "Guan Yu has received favours from Your Excellency. He will most probably leave after he has repaid your kindness."[Sanguozhi zhu 3]
After Guan Yu slew Yan Liang and lifted the siege on Baima, Cao Cao knew that he would leave soon so he gave Guan Yu greater rewards. Guan Yu sealed up all the gifts he received from Cao Cao, wrote a farewell letter, and headed towards Yuan Shao's territory to find Liu Bei. Cao Cao's subordinates wanted to pursue Guan Yu, but Cao Cao stopped them and said, "He's just doing his duty to his lord. There's no need to pursue him."[Sanguozhi 10]
Pei Songzhi commented on this as follows: "Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character even though he knew that Guan Yu would not remain under him. He did not send his men to pursue Guan Yu when Guan Yu left, so as to allow Guan Yu to fulfil his allegiance (to Liu Bei). If he was not as magnanimous as a great warlord should be, how would he allow this to happen? This was an example of Cao Cao's goodness."[Sanguozhi zhu 4]
WhenCao Cao andYuan Shao clashed at theBattle of Guandu in 200, Yuan sentLiu Bei to contact Liu Pi (劉辟), aYellow Turban rebel chief inRunan (汝南), and assist Liu Pi in attacking the imperial capital Xu while Cao Cao was away at Guandu. Guan Yu reunited with Liu Bei around this time. Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated by Cao Cao's generalCao Ren, after which Liu Bei returned to Yuan Shao. Liu Bei secretly planned to leave Yuan Shao, so he pretended to persuade Yuan Shao to form an alliance withLiu Biao, the Governor ofJing Province. Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact another rebel leader, Gong Du (共都/龔都), in Runan, where they gathered a few thousand soldiers. Cao Cao turned back and attacked Runan after scoring a decisive victory over Yuan Shao at Guandu. Liu Bei fled south and found shelter under Liu Biao, who put him in charge ofXinye at the northern border of Jing Province. Guan Yu followed Liu Bei to Xinye.[Sanguozhi others 7][Sanguozhi 11]
Liu Biao died in 208 and was succeeded by his younger son,Liu Cong, who surrenderedJing Province toCao Cao when the latter started a campaign that year with the aim of wiping out opposing forces in southern China.Liu Bei evacuated Xinye together with his followers and they headed towardsXiakou, which was guarded by Liu Biao's elder sonLiu Qi and independent of Cao Cao's control. Along the journey, Liu Bei divided his party into two groups – one led by Guan Yu which would sail along the river towardsJiangling; another led by Liu Bei which would travel on land. Cao Cao sent 5,000 elite cavalry to pursue Liu Bei's group and they caught up with them at Changban, where theBattle of Changban broke out. Liu Bei and his remaining followers managed to escape from Cao Cao's forces and reach Han Ford (漢津), where Guan Yu's group picked them up and they sailed to Xiakou together.[Sanguozhi others 8][Sanguozhi 12]
In 208, Liu Bei allied withSun Quan and they defeated Cao Cao at the decisiveBattle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao retreated north after his defeat and leftCao Ren behind to defend Jing Province.[Sanguozhi 13] During theBattle of Jiangling, Guan Yu was stationed at the northern routes to block Cao Ren's supply lines via infiltration. Li Tong engaged Guan Yu, attempting to support Cao Ren's forces, but died from illness during the campaign.[Sanguozhi others 9] Xu Huang and Man Chong also engaged with Guan Yu in Hanjin (漢津) in order to support Cao Ren against Zhou Yu.[Sanguozhi others 10] Finally, Yue Jin, stationed in Xiangyang, defeated Guan Yu and Su Fei (蘇非) and drove them away.[Sanguozhi others 11] After seizing and pacifying the various commanderies in southern Jing Province, Liu Bei appointed Guan Yu as the Administrator (太守) of Xiangyang and General Who Defeats Bandits (盪寇將軍), and ordered him to station at the north of theYangtze River.[Sanguozhi 13]
Between 212 and 214,Liu Bei starteda campaign to seize control ofYi Province from the provincial governorLiu Zhang. Most of Liu Bei's subordinates participated in the campaign, while Guan Yu remained behind to guard and oversee Liu Bei's territories inJing Province.[Sanguozhi 14]
During the mid 210s, a territorial dispute broke out between Liu Bei andSun Quan in southern Jing Province. According to an earlier arrangement, Liu Bei "borrowed" southern Jing Province from Sun Quan to serve as a temporary base; he would have to return the territories to Sun Quan once he found another base. After Liu Bei seized control of Yi Province, Sun Quan asked him to return three commanderies but Liu Bei refused. Sun Quan then sent his generalLü Meng to lead his forces to seize the three commanderies. In response, Liu Bei ordered Guan Yu to lead troops to stop Lü Meng.[Sanguozhi others 12]Gan Ning, one of Lü Meng's subordinates, managed to deter Guan Yu from crossing the shallows nearYiyang. The shallows were thus named 'Guan Yu's Shallows' (關羽瀨).[Sanguozhi others 13]Lu Su (the overall commander of Sun Quan's forces in Jing Province) later invited Guan Yu to attend a meeting to settle the territorial dispute. Around 215, after Cao Cao seized control ofHanzhong Commandery, Liu Bei saw that as a strategic threat to his position in Yi Province so he decided to make peace with Sun Quan and agreed to divide southern Jing Province between his and Sun Quan's domains along theXiang River. Both sides then withdrew their forces.[Sanguozhi others 14]
In 219,Liu Bei emerged victorious in theHanzhong Campaign againstCao Cao, after which he declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (漢中王). He appointed Guan Yu as General of the Vanguard (前將軍) and bestowed upon him a ceremonial axe. In the same year, Guan Yu led his forces to attackCao Ren atFancheng and besiege the fortress. Cao Cao sentYu Jin to lead reinforcements to help Cao Ren. It was in autumn and there were heavy showers so theHan River overflowed. The flood destroyed Yu Jin's seven armies. Guan Yu had prepared his navy to advance during the flood, and Yu Jin surrendered to Guan Yu while his subordinatePang De refused and was executed by Guan Yu. Various local officials such as Administrator of Nanxiang Fu Fang and Inspector of Jing Province Hu Xiu defected to Guan Yu. Angered by Cao Cao's forced labor put upon them, rebel peasants and bandits in Liang (梁), Jia (郟) and Luhun (陸渾) also submitted to Guan Yu and received official seals to work as his raiders. Guan Yu's fame spread throughout China.[Sanguozhi 15][11]
TheShu Ji recorded that before Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he dreamt about a boar biting his foot. He told his sonGuan Ping, "I am growing weaker this year. I might not even return alive."[Sanguozhi zhu 5]
WithLiu Bei gaining Hanzhong as well as the northwest commanderies of Jing: Fangling, Shangyong and Xicheng; and now after Yu Jin's defeat, Cao Cao contemplated relocating the imperial capital from Xu further north intoHebei to avoid Guan Yu, butSima Yi andJiang Ji told him thatSun Quan would become restless when he heard of Guan Yu's victory. They suggested to Cao Cao to ally with Sun Quan and get him to help them hinder Guan Yu's advances; in return, Cao Cao would recognise the legitimacy of Sun Quan's claim over the territories inJiangdong. In this way, the siege on Fancheng would automatically be lifted. Cao Cao heeded their suggestion. Previously, Sun Quan had sent a messenger to meet Guan Yu and propose a marriage between his son andGuan Yu's daughter. However, Guan Yu not only rejected the proposal, but also scolded and humiliated the messenger. Sun Quan was enraged.[Sanguozhi 16]
Cao Cao later sentXu Huang to lead another army to reinforce Cao Ren at Fancheng. Xu Huang broke through Guan Yu's encirclement and routed Guan Yu's forces on the battlefield, thus lifting the siege on Fancheng.[Sanguozhi others 15] Guan Yu withdrew his forces after seeing that he could not capture Fancheng.[Sanguozhi 17] TheShu Ji recorded an incident about Xu Huang encountering Guan Yu on the battlefield. Xu Huang was previously a close friend of Guan Yu. They often chatted about other things apart from military affairs. When they met again at Fancheng, Xu Huang gave an order to his men: "Whoever takes Guan Yu's head will be rewarded with 1,000jin of gold." A shocked Guan Yu asked Xu Huang, "Brother, what are you talking about?" Xu Huang replied, "This is an affair of the state."[Sanguozhi zhu 6]
Although Guan Yu defeated and capturedYu Jin at Fancheng, his army found itself lacking food supplies, so he seized grain from one ofSun Quan's granaries at Xiang Pass (湘關). By then, Sun Quan had secretly agreed to an alliance withCao Cao and sentLü Meng and others to invadeJing Province while he followed behind with reinforcements. At Xunyang (尋陽), Lü Meng ordered his troops to hide in vessels disguised as civilian and merchant ships and sail towards Jing Province. Along the way, Lü Meng infiltrated and disabled the watchtowers set up by Guan Yu along the river, so Guan Yu was totally unaware of the invasion.[Sanguozhi others 16]
When Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he leftMi Fang andShi Ren behind to defend his key bases in Jing Province –Nan Commandery andGong'an. Guan Yu had constantly treated them with contempt. During the campaign, after Mi Fang and Shi Ren sent insufficient supplies to Guan Yu's army at the frontline, an annoyed Guan Yu said, "I will deal with them when I return." Mi Fang and Shi Ren felt uneasy about this. When Sun Quan invaded Jing Province, Lü Meng showed understanding towards Mi Fang and successfully induced him into surrendering whileYu Fan also persuaded Shi Ren to give up resistance. With the exceptions of the northwest, Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province fell under Sun Quan's control after the surrenders of Mi Fang and Shi Ren.[Sanguozhi 18]
TheDianlue recorded:
When Guan Yu was besieging Fancheng, Sun Quan sent a messenger to Guan Yu to offer aid while secretly instructing the messenger to take his time to travel there. He then sent a registrar ahead to meet Guan Yu first. Guan Yu was unhappy that Sun Quan's offer came late because he had already capturedYu Jin by then. He scolded the messenger, "Youraccoon dogs dare to behave like this! If I can conquer Fancheng, what makes you think I can't destroy you?" Although Sun Quan felt insulted by Guan Yu's response, he still wrote a letter to Guan Yu and pretended to apologise and offer to allow Guan Yu to pass through his territory freely.[Sanguozhi zhu 7]
Pei Songzhi commented on theDianlue account as follows:
Although Liu Bei and Sun Quan appeared to get along harmoniously, they were actually distrustful of each other. When Sun Quan later attacked Guan Yu, he dispatched his forces secretly, as mentioned in Lü Meng's biography: '[...] elite soldiers hid in vessels disguised as civilian and merchant ships.' Based on this reasoning, even if Guan Yu did not seek help from Sun Quan, the latter would not mention anything about granting Guan Yu free passage in his territory. If they genuinely wished to help each other, why would they conceal their movements from each other?[Sanguozhi zhu 8]
By the time Guan Yu retreated from Fancheng,Sun Quan's forces had occupied Jiangling and captured the families of Guan Yu's soldiers.Lü Meng ordered his troops to treat the civilians well and ensure that they were not harmed.[j] Most of Guan Yu's soldiers lost their fighting spirit and deserted and went back to Jing Province to reunite with their families. Guan Yu knew that he had been isolated so he withdrew to Maicheng (麥城; in present-dayDangyang, Hubei) and headed west to Zhang District (漳鄉), where his remaining men deserted him and surrendered to the enemy. Sun Quan sentZhu Ran andPan Zhang to block Guan Yu's retreat route. Guan Yu, along with his sonGuan Ping and subordinate Zhao Lei (趙累), were captured alive by Pan Zhang's deputy Ma Zhong (馬忠) in an ambush. Guan Yu and Guan Ping were later executed by Sun Quan's forces in Linju (臨沮; in present-dayNanzhang County, Hubei).[Sanguozhi 19][Sanguozhi others 17][Sanguozhi others 18]
TheShu Ji mentioned that Sun Quan initially wanted to keep Guan Yu alive in the hope of using Guan Yu to help him counter Liu Bei and Cao Cao. However, his followers advised him against doing so by saying, "A wolf shouldn't be kept as a pet as it'll bring harm to the keeper. Cao Cao made a mistake when he refused to kill Guan Yu and landed himself in deep trouble. He even had to consider relocating the imperial capital elsewhere. How can Guan Yu be allowed to live?" Sun Quan then ordered Guan Yu's execution.[Sanguozhi zhu 9]
Pei Songzhi disputed this account as follows:
According to (Wei Zhao's)Book of Wu, when Sun Quan sent Pan Zhang to block Guan Yu's retreat route, Guan Yu was executed after he was captured. Linju was about 200 to 300li away from Jiangling, so how was it possible that Guan Yu was kept alive while Sun Quan and his subjects discussed whether to execute him or not? The claim that 'Sun Quan wanted to keep Guan Yu alive for the purpose of using him to counter Liu Bei and Cao Cao' does not make sense. It was probably meant to silence smart people.[Sanguozhi zhu 10]
Sun Quan sent Guan Yu's head to Cao Cao, who arranged a noble's funeral for Guan Yu and had his head properly buried with full honours.[Sanguozhi zhu 11] In October or November 260,Liu Shan granted Guan Yu theposthumous title "Marquis Zhuangmou" (壯繆侯).[Sanguozhi 20][Sanguozhi others 19] According to posthumous naming rules in theYi Zhou Shu, "mou" was meant for a person who failed to live up to his reputation.[12]
During theBattle of Xiapi in late 198, when the allied forces ofCao Cao andLiu Bei fought againstLü Bu, Guan Yu sought permission from Cao Cao to marryQin Yilu's wife Lady Du (杜氏) after they won the battle. After Cao Cao agreed, Guan Yu still repeatedly reminded Cao Cao about his promise before the battle ended. After Lü Bu's defeat and death, Cao Cao was so curious about why Guan Yu wanted Lady Du so badly and he guessed that she must be very beautiful, so he had her brought to him. Cao Cao ultimately broke his promise as he took Lady Du as his concubine and adopted her sonQin Lang (whom she had with Qin Yilu).[Sanguozhi zhu 12][Sanguozhi zhu 13]
TheShu Ji recorded an incident as follows:
WhenLiu Bei was in the imperial capital Xu, he once attended a hunting expedition together withCao Cao, during which Guan Yu urged him to kill Cao Cao but he refused. Later, when Liu Bei reached Xiakou (after his defeat at theBattle of Changban), Guan Yu complained, "If you heeded my advice during the hunting expedition in Xu, we wouldn't end up in this troubling situation." Liu Bei replied, "I didn't do so then for the sake of the Empire. If Heaven still helps those who are righteous, it might be possible that this may turn out to be a blessing in disguise!"[Sanguozhi zhu 14]
Pei Songzhi commented on theShu Ji account as follows:
When Liu Bei,Dong Cheng and others plotted against Cao Cao, their plan failed because it was leaked out. If he did not want to kill Cao Cao for the sake of the Empire, what did he mean when he said this? If Guan Yu did urge Liu Bei to kill Cao Cao during the hunting expedition and Liu Bei did not do so, it was probably because Cao Cao's close aides and relatives were present at the scene and they outnumbered him. Besides, there was a lack of careful planning so Liu Bei had to wait for another opportunity. Even if Liu Bei succeeded in killing Cao Cao, he would not have been able to escape alive, so Liu Bei did not heed Guan Yu's words. There was nothing to regret. The hunting expedition event happened in the past, so it was used to justify that Guan Yu had given Liu Bei "valued advice", which the latter ignored.[Sanguozhi zhu 15]
In 214,Ma Chao defected fromZhang Lu's side to Liu Bei's forces, and he assisted Liu Bei in pressuring Liu Zhang to surrender and yield Yi Province to Liu Bei. When Guan Yu received news that Ma Chao (whom he was unfamiliar with) had recently joined them, he wrote toZhuge Liang in Yi Province and asked him who was comparable to Ma Chao. Zhuge Liang knew that Guan Yu was defending the border (so he should not displease Guan Yu). He replied: "Mengqi is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable toQing Bu andPeng Yue. He can compete withYide, but he is not as good as the peerless beard."[b][Sanguozhi 22]
Guan Yu was very pleased when he received Zhuge Liang's reply and he welcomed Ma Chao.[Sanguozhi 23]
Guan Yu was once injured in the left arm by a stray arrow which pierced through his arm. Although the wound healed, he still experienced pain in the bone whenever there was a heavy downpour. A physician told him, "The arrowhead had poison on it and the poison had seeped into the bone. The way to get rid of this problem is to cut open your arm and scrape away the poison in your bone." Guan Yu then stretched out his arm and asked the physician to heal him. He then invited his subordinates to dine with him while the surgery was being performed. Blood flowed from his arm into a container below. Throughout the operation, Guan Yu feasted, consumed alcohol and chatted with his men as though nothing had happened.[Sanguozhi 24]
Guan Yu had two known sons –Guan Ping andGuan Xing. Guan Xing inherited his father's title "Marquis of Hanshou Village" (漢壽亭侯) and served in the state ofShu during theThree Kingdoms period.[Sanguozhi 25] Guan Yu also had a daughter. Sun Quan once proposed a marriage between his son and Guan Yu's daughter, but Guan Yu rejected the proposal. Her name was not recorded in history, but she was known as "Guan Yinping" (關銀屏) or "Guan Feng" (關鳳) in folktales andChinese opera, as well as in theDynasty Warriors video game series (as Guan Yinping). Guan Yu allegedly had a third son,Guan Suo, who is not mentioned in historical texts and appears only in folklore, theRomance of the Three Kingdoms novel, and inDynasty Warriors.
Guan Xing's son, Guan Tong (關統), married a princess (one ofLiu Shan's daughters) and served as a General of the Household (中郎將) among the imperial guards. Guan Tong had no son when he died, so he was succeeded by his younger half-brother Guan Yi (關彝).[Sanguozhi 26]
According to theShu Ji, after thefall of Shu in 263,Pang Hui (Pang De's son) massacred Guan Yu's family and descendants to avenge his father, who was executed by Guan Yu after theBattle of Fancheng in 219.[Sanguozhi zhu 16]
In 1719, theKangxi Emperor of theQing dynasty awarded the hereditary title "Wujing Boshi" (五經博士; "Professor of theFive Classics") to Guan Yu's descendants living inLuoyang. The bearer of the title is entitled to an honorary position in theHanlin Academy.[13][14]
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Chen Shou, who wrote Guan Yu's biography in theSanguozhi, commented on the latter as such: "Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were praised as mighty warriors capable of fighting ten thousand of enemies (萬人敵). They were like tigers among (Liu Bei's) subjects. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei both had the style of aguoshi.[k] Guan Yu repaid Cao Cao's kindness while Zhang Fei releasedYan Yan out of righteousness. However, Guan Yu was unrelenting and conceited while Zhang Fei was brutal and heartless. These shortcomings resulted in their downfalls. This was not something uncommon."[Sanguozhi 27]
Guan Yu was deified as early as theSui dynasty (581–618), and is still worshipped today as abodhisattva inBuddhist tradition and as a guardian deity in Chinese folk religion andTaoism.[15] He is also held in high esteem inConfucianism and in new religious movements such asYiguandao.
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InChinese folk religion, Guan Yu is widely referred to as "Emperor Guan" (關帝;Guāndì;dì implies deified status) and "Lord Guan" (關公;Guān Gōng), while his Taoist title is "Holy Emperor Lord Guan" (關聖帝君;Guān Shèng Dì Jūn).Martial temples and shrines dedicated exclusively to Guan Yu can be found across mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and other places with Chinese influence such as Vietnam, South Korea and Japan. Some of these temples, such as theHaizhou Guandi Temple inShanxi, were built exactly in the layout of an imperial residence, befitting his status as a "ruler". Other examples of Guan Yu temples in China include theGuandi Temple ofJinan and the Guanlin Temple ofLuoyang.[16]
The apotheosis of Guan Yu occurred in stages, as he was given ever higherposthumous titles.Liu Shan, the second emperor ofShu, gave Guan Yu the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhuangmou" (壯繆侯) four decades after his death. During theSong dynasty,Emperor Huizong bestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Duke Zhonghui" (忠惠公), and later the title of a prince. In 1187,Emperor Xiaozong honoured Guan Yu as "Prince Zhuangmou Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (壯繆義勇武安英濟王). During theYuan dynasty,Emperor Wenzong changed Guan Yu's title to "Prince of Xianling Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (顯靈義勇武安英濟王).
In 1614, theWanli Emperor bestowed on Guan Yu the title "Holy Emperor Guan, the Great God Who Subdues Demons in the Three Worlds and Whose Awe Spreads Far and Moves Heaven" (三界伏魔大神威遠震天尊關聖帝君). During theQing dynasty, theShunzhi Emperor gave Guan Yu the title of "Guan, the Loyal and Righteous God of War, the Holy Great Emperor" (忠義神武關聖大帝) in 1644. This title was expanded to "Guan the Holy Great Emperor; God of War Manifesting Benevolence, Bravery and Prestige; Protector of the Country and Defender of the People; Proud and Honest Supporter of Peace and Reconciliation; Promoter of Morality, Loyalty and Righteousness" (仁勇威顯護國保民精誠綏靖翊贊宣德忠義神武關聖大帝), a total of 24Chinese characters, by the mid-19th century. It is often shortened to "Saint of War" (武聖;Wǔ Shèng), which is of the same rank asConfucius, who is honoured the "Saint of Culture" (文聖;Wén Shèng). The Qing dynasty promoted the worship of Guan Yu among the Mongol tribes, making him one of their most revered religious figures, second only to theirlamas.[17]
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Throughout history, Guan Yu has also been credited with many military successes. In the 14th century, his spirit was said to have aidedZhu Yuanzhang, the founder of theMing dynasty, at theBattle of Lake Poyang. In 1402, whenZhu Di launched a coup d'état and successfully deposed his nephew, theJianwen Emperor, Zhu Di claimed that he was blessed by the spirit of Guan Yu. During the last decade of the 16th century, Guan Yu was also credited with the repulse ofJapanese invasion of Korea byToyotomi Hideyoshi. TheManchuimperial clan of theQing dynasty was also associated with Guan Yu's martial qualities. During the 20th century, Guan Yu was worshipped by the warlordYuan Shikai, president and later a short-lived emperor of China.
Guan Yu's messages were received by mediums throughspirit writing, later calledFuji (planchette writing) (扶乩/扶箕), since the late 17th century. "By the mid-Qianlong period (1736–96) the number of 'sacred edicts' issued by Guandi ordering people to do good and help those in need became increasingly frequent." In the 19th century, Guandi's messages received through spirit writing assumed a millennialist character. Dates were announced for the end of the world, followed by messages indicating that Guandi had "prevented the apocalypse" and was indeed "the savior of endtimes." In 1866, the Ten Completions Society (Shiquanhui 十全會) was established to propagate the messages of Guandi and promote the charitable work his spirit had ordered to perform. The tradition of Guandi spirit writing continued in Chinese folk Religion well into the 20th century.[18]
Today, Guan Yu is still widely worshipped by the Chinese; he may be worshipped inMartial temples andWen Wu temples, and small shrines devoted to him are also found in homes, businesses and fraternal organisations. In Hong Kong, a shrine to Guan Yu can be found in every police station. Though by no means mandatory, Chinese police officers worship and pay respect to him. Although seemingly ironic, members of thetriads andHeaven and Earth Society worship Guan Yu as well. Statues used by triads tend to hold the halberd in the left hand, and statues in police stations tend to hold the halberd in the right hand. This signifies which side Guan Yu is worshipped, by the righteous people or vice versa. The appearance of Guan Yu's face for the triads is usually more stern and threatening than the usual statue. In Hong Kong, Guan Yu is often referred to as "Yi Gor" (二哥; Cantonese for "second elder brother") for he was second toLiu Bei in their fictional sworn brotherhood. Guan Yu is also worshipped by Chinese businessmen in Shanxi, Hong Kong, Macau and Southeast Asia as an alternative wealth god, since he is perceived to bless the upright and protect them from the wicked. Another reason is related to the release of Cao Cao during the Huarong Trail incident, in which he let Cao and his men pass through safely. For that, he was perceived to be able to extend the lifespan of people in need. AmongChinese Filipinos in thePhilippines, Guan Yu is also sometimes known as"Santo Santiago" (St. James) or in Hokkien as "Te Ya Kong" (HokkienChinese:帝爺公;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Tè-iâ-kong) or "Kuan Kong" (HokkienChinese:關公;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Koan-kong).[19]
Among theCantonese people who emigrated to California during the mid-19th century, the worship of Guan Yu was an important element. Statues and tapestry images of the god can be found in a number of historical California joss houses (a local term forChinese folk religion temples), where his name may be given with various Anglicised spellings, including:Kwan Dai,Kwan Tai orKuan Ti forGuandi (Emperor Guan);Kuan Kung forGuan Gong (Lord Guan),Wu Ti orMo Dai forWu Di (War Deity),Kuan Yu,Kwan Yu, orQuan Yu for Guan Yu. TheMendocino Joss House, a historical landmark also known as Mo Dai Miu (Wudimiao, i.e. the Temple of the Deity of War), or Temple of Kwan Tai, built in 1852, is a typical example of the small shrines erected to Guan Yu in the United States.
Guan Yu is also worshipped as adoor god inChinese andTaoist temples, with portraits of him being pasted on doors to ward off evil spirits, usually in pairings withZhang Fei,Guan Ping,Guan Sheng orZhou Cang.
Apart from general worship, Guan Yu is also commemorated in China with colossal statues such as the 1,320-tonne sculpture inJingzhou City,Hubei Province, standing at 58 metres.[20]
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Guan Yu is revered as "Holy Ruler Deity Guan" (關聖帝君;Guān Shèng Dì Jūn) and a leading subduer of demons in Taoism. Taoist worship of Guan Yu began during theSong dynasty. Legend has it that during the second decade of the 12th century, the saltwater lake in Xiezhou gradually ceased to yield salt.Emperor Huizong then summoned Zhang Jixian (張繼先), a 30th-generation descendant ofZhang Daoling, to investigate the cause. The emperor was told that the disruption was the work ofChi You, a deity of war. Zhang Jixian then recruited the help of Guan Yu, who battled Chi You over the lake and triumphed, whereupon the lake resumed salt production. Emperor Huizong then bestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Immortal of Chongning" (崇寧真君;Chóngníng Zhēnjūn), formally introducing the latter as a deity into Taoism.[citation needed]
In the earlyMing dynasty, the 42nd Celestial Master, Zhang Zhengchang (張正常), recorded the incident in his bookLineage of the Han Celestial Masters (漢天師世家), the first Taoist classic to affirm the legend. Today, Taoist practices are predominant in Guan Yu worship. Many temples dedicated to Guan Yu, including the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County, show heavy Taoist influence. Every year, on the 24th day of the sixth month on thelunar calendar (Guan Yu's birthday in legend), a street parade in Guan Yu's honour would also be held.[citation needed]
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InChinese Buddhism, Guan Yu is revered by most Chinese Mahayana Buddhists as SangharamaBodhisattva (伽蓝菩萨;伽藍菩薩;Qiélán Púsà) a heavenly protector of the Buddhistdharma.Sangharama inSanskrit means 'community garden' (sangha, community +arama, garden) and thus 'monastery'. The termSangharama also refer to thedharmapala class of devas and spirits assigned to guard the Buddhist monastery, the dharma, and the faith itself. Over time and as an act of syncreticism, Guan Yu was seen as the representative guardian of the temple and the garden in which it stands. His statue traditionally is situated in the far left of the main altar, opposite his counterpartSkanda.[citation needed]
According to Buddhist legends, in 592, Guan Yu manifested himself one night before theChan masterZhiyi, the founder of theTiantai school of Buddhism, along with a retinue of spiritual beings. Zhiyi was then in deep meditation onJade Spring Hill (玉泉山) when he was distracted by Guan Yu's presence. Guan Yu then requested the master to teach him about the dharma. After receiving Buddhist teachings from the master, Guan Yu took refuge in the triple gems and also requested theFive Precepts. Henceforth, it is said that Guan Yu made a vow to become a guardian of temples and the dharma. Legends also claim that Guan Yu assisted Zhiyi in the construction of theYuquan Temple, which still stands today.[citation needed]
The 14th-century historical novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms glorifies Guan Yu by portraying him as a righteous and loyal warrior. Guan Yu is one of the most altered and aggrandised characters in the novel,[citation needed] which accounts for his popular image in Chinese society.
See the following for some fictitious stories inRomance of the Three Kingdoms involving Guan Yu:
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Guan Yu appears inChinese operas such asHuarong Trail,Red Cliffs, and other excerpts fromRomance of the Three Kingdoms. His costume is a green military opera uniform with armour covering his right arm and the knees of his pants. The actor's face is painted red with a few black lines, to represent honour and courage. He also wears a long three-section black beard made of yak hair and carries theGreen Dragon Crescent Blade. Traditionally, after the show ends, the actor has to wash his face, burn joss paper, light incense, and pray to Chinese deities.[citation needed]
Notable actors who have portrayed Guan Yu in film and television include:[citation needed]Lu Shuming inRomance of the Three Kingdoms (1994); Wang Yingquan inThe Legend of Guan Gong (2004);Ti Lung inThree Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon (2008);Ba Sen inRed Cliff (2008–2009);Yu Rongguang inThree Kingdoms (2010);Donnie Yen inThe Lost Bladesman (2011);Au Sui-Wai inThree Kingdoms RPG (2012);Han Geng inDynasty Warriors (2019).
Films which make references to Guan Yu include:Stephen Chow's comedy filmFrom Beijing with Love (1994), which, in one scene, refers to the story ofHua Tuo performing surgery on Guan Yu's arm;[citation needed]Zhang Yimou'sRiding Alone for Thousands of Miles (2005), in which the fictional story of Guan Yu slaying six generals and crossing five passes forms a major part of the narrative;[citation needed] the horror comedy filmMy Name Is Bruce (2007), where Guan Yu'svengeful spirit is accidentally set free by a group of teenagers and he begins to terrorise their town.[citation needed]
Guan Yu appears as a playable character in many video games based onRomance of the Three Kingdoms which are produced byKoei, including: thestrategy game series of the same title as the novel; the action game seriesDynasty Warriors andWarriors Orochi. Other non-Koei titles in which he also appears include:Total War: Three Kingdoms;[21]Puzzle & Dragons;[22]Sango Fighter;Destiny of an Emperor; andAtlantica Online. He is also referenced inEmperor: Rise of the Middle Kingdom,Titan Quest, andKoihime Musō.
Guan Yu is referenced in thePortal Three Kingdoms of the card gameMagic: The Gathering on a playable card.[citation needed]
The hero Jiang Jun that appears in an add-on for the gameFor Honor, developed byUbisoft Montreal, is heavily based on Guan Yu.[citation needed] He is introduced in the 2018 DLCMarching Fire Expansion, along with the other characters from the Chinese Wulin faction. The Jiang Jun wields Guan Yu's signatureGuandao weapon and is portrayed as a wise older general.
Guan Yu is referenced in the 2020 gameHades bySupergiant Games. The final "aspect", or form, unlocked for the Eternal Spear weapon is the Aspect of Guan Yu, theFrost Fair Blade, which resembles an ornamentedGuandao. The Eternal Spear is said to be the same spear wielded by Guan Yu in the future, taking this form.[23]
Guan Yu is a popular motif in collector coins series featuring Ancient warriors. ThePolish Mint issued a 2oz silver coin featuring him in 2019,[24] and another one in 2021.[25]
During the course of price liberalization debates as part of China'sreform and opening up,Deng Xiaoping invoked the fictitious story of Guan Yu crossing five passes and slaying six generals (as described in the novelRomance of the Three Kingdoms) as part of his rhetoric.[26] "To the Chinese audience familiar with the famous tale of Lord Guan, there could have been no doubt of Deng's determination to push ahead with radical price reforms."[27] As Deng explained in 1986 to a North Korean delegation:[27]
Only once prices have been straightened out will be able to step up reform ... Doesn't China have the tale of Lord Guan 'Slaying Six Generals to Force Through Five Passes?' We might have to pass through even more 'passes' than Lord Guan, slaying even more 'generals.' To force a pass is not at all easy and requires taking great risks.
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