Prince Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin-Tauricheski[c] (11 October [O.S. 30 September] 1739[nb 1] – 16 October [O.S. 5 October] 1791) was a Russian military leader, statesman, nobleman, andfavourite ofCatherine the Great. He died during negotiations over theTreaty of Iași, which ended a war with theOttoman Empire that he had overseen.
Potemkin was born into a family of middle-income landowners ofRussian nobility. He first attracted Catherine's favor for helping in her 1762 coup, then distinguished himself as a military commander in theRusso-Turkish War (1768–1774). He became Catherine's lover, favorite and possibly her consort. After their passion cooled, he remained her lifelong friend and favored statesman. Catherine obtained for him the title ofPrince of the Holy Roman Empire and gave him the title ofPrince of the Russian Empire among many others: he was both aGrand Admiral and the head of all of Russia's land andirregular forces. Potemkin's achievements include the peacefulannexation of theCrimea (1783) and the successful secondRusso-Turkish War (1787–1792), during which the armed forces under his commandbesieged Ochakov.
In 1775, Potemkin became the governor-general of Russia's new southern provinces. An absolute ruler, he worked to colonize the wildsteppes, controversially dealing firmly with theCossacks who lived there. He founded the towns ofKherson,Nikolayev,Sevastopol, andYekaterinoslav. Ports in the region became bases for his newBlack Sea Fleet.
His rule in the south is associated with the (probably mythical) "Potemkin village", a ruse involving the construction of painted façades to mimic real villages, full of happy, well-fed people, for visiting officials to see. Potemkin was known for his love of women, gambling and material wealth. He oversaw the construction of many historically significant buildings, including theTauride Palace inSaint Petersburg.
A distant relative of the Muscovite diplomatPyotr Potemkin (1617–1700), Grigory was born in the village of Chizhovo nearSmolensk into a family of middle-income noble landowners.His father,Alexander Potemkin (1673–1746), was a decorated war veteran. His mother Daria VasilievnaKondyreva (1704–1780) was "good-looking, capable and intelligent", though their marriage proved ultimately unhappy.[6][7] Potemkin received his first name in honour of his father's cousin Grigory Matveevich Kizlovsky, a civil servant who became hisgodfather. HistorianSimon Sebag Montefiore has suggested that Kizlovsky fathered Potemkin,[8] who became the centre of attention, heir to the village and the only son among six children. As the son of an (albeit petty) noble family, he grew up with the expectation that he would serve the Russian Empire.[9]
After Alexander died in 1746, Daria took charge of the family. In order to achieve a career for her son, and aided by Kizlovsky, the family moved to Moscow, where Potemkin enrolled at agymnasium school attached to theUniversity of Moscow. The young Potemkin became adept at languages and interested in theRussian Orthodox Church.[10] He enlisted in the army in 1750 at age eleven, in accordance with the custom of noble children. In 1755 a second inspection placed him in the éliteHorse Guards regiment.[11]
Having graduated from the university school, Potemkin became one of the first students to enroll at the university itself. Talented in both Greek andtheology, he won the university's gold medal in 1757 and became part of a twelve-student delegation sent toSaint Petersburg later that year. The trip seems to have affected Potemkin: afterwards he studied little and was soon expelled.[7] Faced with isolation from his family, he rejoined the Guards, where he excelled.[11] At this time his net worth amounted to 430 souls (serfs), equivalent to that of the poorer gentry. His time was taken up with "drinking, gambling, and promiscuous lovemaking", and he fell deep in debt.[12]
Grigory Orlov, one of Catherine's lovers, led a palace coup in June 1762 that ousted the EmperorPeter III and enthroned Catherine II. Sergeant Potemkin represented his regiment in the revolt. Allegedly, as Catherine reviewed her troops in front of theWinter Palace before their march to thePeterhof, she lacked asword-knot (or possibly hat plumage), which Potemkin quickly supplied. Potemkin's horse then appeared to refuse to leave her side for several minutes before Potemkin and the horse returned to the ranks.[13][14]
After the coup, Catherine singled out Potemkin for reward and ensured his promotion to second lieutenant. Though Potemkin was among those guarding the ex-Tsar, it appears that he had no direct involvement in Peter's murder in July.[15] Catherine promoted him again toKammerjunker (gentleman of the bedchamber), though he retained his post in the Guards. Potemkin was soon formally presented to the Empress as a talented mimic; his imitation of her was well received.[16]
Although Catherine had not yet taken Potemkin as a lover, it seems likely that she passively—if not actively—encouraged his flirtatious behaviour, including his regular practice of kissing her hand and declaring his love for her: without encouragement, Potemkin could have expected trouble from the Orlovs (Catherine's lover Grigory and his four brothers) who dominated court.[17] Potemkin entered Catherine's circle of advisers, and in 1762 took his only foreign assignment, to Sweden, bearing news of the coup. On his return, he was appointedProcurator, and won a reputation as a lover. Under unclear circumstances, Potemkin then lost his left eye and fell into a depression. According to legend, Grigory andAlexei Orlov invited Potemkin to a friendly game ofbilliards, then attacked him with their cues "for flirting with Catherine",[18] resulting in Potemkin's eye being damaged during the brawl; the wound then turned septic "after being mistreated by a quack physician".[19] Other sources claim that Potemkin's eye was struck by a ball "during a tennis match".[19] According toSimon Sebag Montefiore, the cause of the damage was most likely just "an infection."[18] His confidence shattered, Potemkin withdrew from court, becoming something of ahermit.[20]
Eighteen months later, Potemkin reappeared, probably summoned by Catherine. Upon his return, "the man once known asAlcibiades for his wit and beauty was re-nicknamed 'Cyclops'."[18] He became an armypaymaster and oversaw uniform production. Shortly thereafter, he became a Guardian of Exotic Peoples at the newAll-Russian Legislative Commission, a significant political post. In September 1768, Potemkin becameKammerherr (chamberlain). Two months later Catherine had his military commission revoked, fully attaching him to court.[21] In the interval, the Ottoman Empire had started theRusso-Turkish War of 1768 to 1774 and Potemkin was eager to prove himself, writing to Catherine:
The only way I can express my gratitude to Your Majesty is to shed my blood for Your glory. This war provides an excellent opportunity for this and I cannot live in idleness. Allow me now, Merciful Sovereign, to appeal at Your Majesty's feet and request Your Majesty to send me to... the front in whatever rank Your Majesty wishes... [to serve] just for the duration of the war.
Potemkin served as Major-General of thecavalry. He distinguished himself in his first engagement, helping to repulse a band of unrulyTatar and Turkish horsemen. He fought in Russia's victory at the Battle of Kamenets and the taking ofthe town. Potemkin saw action virtually every day, particularly excelling at the Battle of Prashkovsky, after which his commanderAleksandr Mikhailovich Golitsyn recommended him to Catherine.[23] Potemkin's army, underPyotr Rumyantsev, continued its advance. Potemkin fought at the capture of Jurja, a display of courage and skill for which he received theOrder of St. Anna. At theBattle of Larga, he won theOrder of St. George, third class, and fought well during the rout of the main Turkish force that followed. On leave to St. Petersburg, the Empress invited him to dine with her more than ten times.[24]
Back at the front, Potemkin won more military acclaim, but then fell ill; rejecting medicine, he recovered only slowly. After a lull in hostilities in 1772 his movements are unclear, but it seems that he returned to St. Petersburg where he is recorded, perhaps apocryphally, to have been one of Catherine's closest advisers.[25] Though Orlov was replaced as her favourite, it was not Potemkin who benefited.Alexander Vasilchikov, another Horse-Guardsman, replaced Orlov as the queen's lover. Potemkin returned to war in 1773 as Lieutenant-General to fight inSilistria, participating in thesiege of the city. It appears that Catherine missed him, and that Potemkin took a December letter from her as a summons. In any case Potemkin returned to St. Petersburg as a war hero.[26]
A probably later portrait of a 35-year-old Potemkin at the height of his love affair with CatherineThe Empress Catherine (45) at around the same time
Potemkin returned to court in January 1774 expecting to walk into Catherine's arms. The political situation, however, had become complex.Yemelyan Pugachev had just arisen as a pretender to the throne, and commanded a rebel army thirty thousand strong. In addition, Catherine's sonPaul turned eighteen and began to gain his own support.[27] By late January Potemkin had tired of the impasse and effected (perhaps with encouragement from Catherine) a "melodramatic retreat" into theAlexander Nevsky Monastery. Catherine relented and had Potemkin brought back in early February 1774, when their relationship became intimate.[28][29]
Several weeks later he had usurped Vasilchikov as Catherine'sfavorite,[30] and was given the title ofAdjutant General.[31] When Catherine's friendFriedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm objected to Vasilchikov's dismissal, she wrote back to him, "Why do you reproach me because I dismiss a well-meaning but extremely boring bourgeois in favour of one of the greatest, the most comical and amusing, characters of this iron century?"[32][33] His uncouth behavior shocked the court, but Potemkin showed himself capable of suitable formality when necessary.[34]
The frequent letters the pair sent to each other survive, revealing their affair to be one of "laughter, sex, mutually admired intelligence, and power".[35] Many of their trysts seem to have centered around thebanya sauna in the basement of the Winter Palace;[31][36] Potemkin soon grew so jealous that Catherine had to detail her prior love-life for him.[30][37] Potemkin also rose in political stature, particularly on the strength of his military advice.[31] In March 1774 he became Lieutenant-Colonel in thePreobrazhensky Guards, a post previously held by Alexei Orlov. He also became captain of theChevaliers-Gardes from 1784.[38]
That Catherine and Potemkin married is "almost certain", according to Simon Sebag Montefiore,[41] although biographer Virginia Rounding has expressed some doubts.[39] In December 1784 Catherine first explicitly referred to Potemkin as her husband in correspondence, though 1775, 1784 and 1791 have all been suggested as possiblenuptial dates. In all, Catherine's phrasing in 22 letters suggested he had become herconsort, at least secretly.[42] Potemkin's actions and her treatment of him later in life fit with this: the two at least acted as husband and wife.[42]
By late 1775, their relationship was changing, though it is uncertain exactly when Catherine took a secretary,Pyotr Zavadovsky, as a lover.[43] On 2 January 1776, Zavadovsky became Adjutant-General to the Empress (he became her official favorite in May) and Potemkin moved to command the St. Petersburg troop division.[44] Signs of a potential "golden adieu" for Potemkin include his 1776 appointment, at Catherine's request, to the title ofPrince of the Holy Roman Empire.[45][46]
Though he was "bored" with Catherine, the separation was relatively peaceful. The Prince was sent on a tour toNovgorod, but, contrary to the expectations of some onlookers (though not Catherine's[47]), he returned a few weeks later. He then snubbed her gift of theAnichkov Palace, and took new apartments in theWinter Palace, retaining his posts. Though no longer Catherine's favorite, he remained her favored minister.[48]
Though the love affair appeared to end, Catherine and Potemkin maintained a particularly close friendship, which continued to dominate their lives. Most of the time this meant a love triangle in the court between the pair and Catherine's latest swain.[49][50] The favorite had a high-pressure position: after Zavadovsky cameSemyon Zorich (May 1777 to May 1778),Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov (May 1778 to late 1778),Alexander Lanskoy (1780–1784),Alexander Yermolov (1785–1786),Alexander Dmitriev-Mamonov (1786–1789) andPlaton Zubov (1789–1796). Potemkin checked candidates for their suitability; it also appears that he tended to the relationships and "filled in" between favorites.[51] Potemkin also arranged for Catherine to walk in on Rimsky-Korsakov in a compromising position with another woman.[52] During Catherine's (comparatively) long relationship with Lanskoy, Potemkin was particularly able to turn his attentions to other matters.[53] He embarked upon a long series of other romances, including with his own nieces, one of whom may have borne him a child.[54]
Potemkin's first task during this period was foreign policy. AnAnglophile, he helped negotiate with the English ambassador,Sir James Harris, during Catherine's initiative ofArmed Neutrality, though the south remained his passion.[55] His plan, known as theGreek Project, aspired to build a newByzantine Empire around the Turkish capital inConstantinople.[56][57] Dismembering the Ottoman Empire would requiredétente with Austria (technically still theHabsburg monarchy), and its rulerJoseph II. They met in May 1780 in the Russian town ofMogilev.[56] The ensuing alliance represented the triumph of Potemkin's approach over courtiers such as Catherine's son Paul, who favored alliance withPrussia.[58] The May 1781 defensive treaty remained secret for almost two years; the Ottomans were said to still have been unaware of it even when they declared war on Russia in 1787.[59][60]
Elsewhere, Potemkin's scheme to develop a Russian presence in the rapidly disintegrating state ofPersia failed. Plans for a full-scale invasion had previously been cut back and a small unit sent to establish a trading post there was quickly turned away. Potemkin focused instead on Russia's southern provinces, where he was busy founding cities (including Sevastopol) and creating his own personal kingdom, including his brand newBlack Sea Fleet.[61] That kingdom was about to expand: under theTreaty of Kuçuk Kainarji, which had ended the previous Russo-Turkish war, theCrimean Khanate had become independent, though effectively under Russian control. In June 1782 it was descending again intoanarchy.[62]
By July 1783, Potemkin had engineered the peaceful annexation of Crimea andKuban, capitalizing on the fact that Britain and France were fighting elsewhere.[63] TheKingdom of Kartli-Kakheti accepted Russian protection a few days later with theTreaty of Georgievsk searching for protection against Persia's aim to reestablish its suzerainty over Georgia; theKarabakh Khanate of Persia initially looked as though it might also, but eventually declined Russian help. Exhausted, Potemkin collapsed into a fever he barely survived. Catherine rewarded him with one hundred thousand roubles, which he used to construct theTauride Palace in St. Petersburg.[62]
The approximate extent ofNovorossiya by Potemkin's death in 1791
Potemkin returned to St. Petersburg in November 1783 and was promoted to Field Marshal when Crimea was formally annexed the following February. He also became President of the College of War.[64][65] The province ofTaurida (Crimea) was added to the state ofNovorossiya (lit.New Russia). Potemkin moved south in mid-March, as the "Prince of Taurida" or "Potemkin-Tauricheski". He had been thenamestnik of Russia's southern provinces (including Novorossiya,Azov,Saratov,Astrakhan and the Caucasus) since 1774,[citation needed] repeatedly expanding the domain via military action. He kept his own court, which rivalled Catherine's: by the 1780s he operated a chancellery with fifty or more clerks and had his own minister,Vasili Popov, to oversee day-to-day affairs. Another favored associate was Mikhail Faleev.[66]
The "criminal"[clarification needed] breaking of theCossack hosts, particularly theZaporozhian Cossacks in 1775, helped define his rule. However, Montefiore argues that given their location, and in the wake of thePugachev rebellion, the Cossacks were likely doomed in any case.[67] By the time of Potemkin's death, the Cossacks and their threat of anarchic revolt were well controlled.[68] Among theZaporizhian Cossacks he was known asHrytsko Nechesa.[69][70][71]
Potemkin then embarked on a period of city-founding. Construction started at his first effort,Kherson, in 1778, as a base for a newBlack Sea Fleet he intended to build.[67] Potemkin approved every plan himself, but construction was slow, and the city proved costly and vulnerable toplague. Next was the port of Akhtiar, annexed with Crimea, which becameSevastopol. Then he builtSimferopol as the Crimean capital. His biggest failure, however, was his effort to build the city of Yekaterinoslav (lit.'glory of Catherine'), now the city ofDnipro.[nb 2] The second most successful city of Potemkin's rule was Nikolayev (nowMykolaiv), which he founded in 1789.[72] Potemkin also initiated the redesign ofOdessa after its capture from the Turks; it was to turn out to be his greatest city planning triumph.[72]
Potemkin's Black Sea Fleet was a massive undertaking for its time. By 1787, the British ambassador reported twenty-sevenships of the line. It put Russia on a naval footing with Spain, though far behind theRoyal Navy.[73] The period represented the peak of Russia's naval power relative to other European states.[74] Potemkin also rewarded hundreds of thousands of settlers who moved into his territories. It is estimated that by 1782 the populations of Novorossiya and Azov had doubled[73] during a period of "exceptionally rapid" development.[75] Immigrants included Russians, foreigners, British convictsdiverted from Australia,[citation needed] Cossacks and controversiallyJews. Though the immigrants were not always happy in their new surroundings, on at least one occasion Potemkin intervened directly to ensure families received the cattle to which they were entitled.[76] Outside of Novorossiya he drew up the Azov-Mozdok defense line, constructing forts atGeorgievsk,Stavropol and elsewhere and ensured that the whole of the line was settled.[77]
In 1784 Alexander Lanskoy died and Potemkin was needed at court to console the grieving Catherine.[78] AfterAlexander Yermolov was installed as the new favorite in 1785, Catherine, Yermolov and Potemkin cruised the upperVolga.[79] When Yermolov attempted to unseat Potemkin (and attracted support from Potemkin's critics), he found himself replaced by CountAlexander Dmitriev-Mamonov in the summer of 1786.[80] Potemkin returned to the south, having arranged that Catherine would visit in the summer of 1787.[81] She reachedKiev in late January, to travel down theDnieper after the ice had melted (seeCrimean journey of Catherine the Great). Potemkin had other lovers at this time, including a 'Countess' Sevres and a Naryshkina. Leaving in April, the royal party arrived in Kherson a month later.[82][83] On visiting Sevastopol, Austria's Joseph II, who was traveling with them, was moved to note that "The Empress is totally ecstatic... Prince Potemkin is at the moment all-powerful".[84]
The notion of thePotemkin village, coined in German by critical biographer Georg von Helbig asGerman:Potemkinsche Dörfer, arose fromCatherine's visit to the south. Critics accused Potemkin of using paintedfaçades to fool Catherine into thinking that the area was far richer than it was. Thousands of peasants were alleged to have been stage-managed for this purpose. Certainly, Potemkin had arranged for Catherine to see the best he had to offer, organizing numerous exotic excursions, and at least two cities' officials concealed poverty by building false houses. It seems unlikely that the fraud approached the scale alleged. ThePrince of Ligne, a member of the Austrian delegation, who had explored on his own during the trip, later proclaimed the allegations to be false.[85]
Potemkin remained in the south, gradually sinking into depression. His inactivity was problematic, given that he was now Russia's commander-in-chief and, in August 1787, anotherRusso-Turkish war broke out, the second of Potemkin's lifetime. His opponents were anxious to reclaim the lands they had lost in the last war, and they were under pressure from Prussia, Britain and Sweden to take a hostile attitude towards Russia. Potemkin's bluster had probably contributed to the hostility, either deliberately or accidentally. Either way, his creation of the new fleet and Catherine's trip to the south had certainly not helped matters. In the center, Potemkin had his own Yekaterinoslav Army, while to the west lay the smaller Ukraine Army under the command of Field-MarshalRumyantsev-Zadunaisky. On water he had the Black Sea Fleet, and Potemkin was also responsible for coordinating military actions with Russia's Austrian allies.[86]
Potemkin and Catherine agreed on a primarily defensive strategy until the spring. Though the Turks were repelled in early skirmishes against the Russian fortress atKinburn, news of the loss of Potemkin's beloved fleet during a storm sent him into a deep depression. A week later, and after kind words from Catherine, he was rallied by the news that the fleet was not destroyed, but only damaged. GeneralAlexander Suvorov won an importantvictory at Kinburn in early October. With winter now approaching, Potemkin was confident the port would be safe until the spring.[87]
Turning his attention elsewhere, Potemkin established his headquarters inElisabethgrad and planned future operations. He assembled an army of forty or fifty thousand, including the newly formedKuban Cossacks. He divided his time between military preparation (creating a fleet of a hundred gunboats to fight within the shallowliman) and chasing the wives of soldiers under his command.[88] Meanwhile, the Austrians remained on the defensive across central Europe, though they did manage to hold their lines. Despite advice to the contrary, Potemkin pursued an equally defensive strategy, though in theCaucasus Generals Tekeeli and Pavel Potemkin were making some inroads.[89]
In early summer 1788, fighting intensified as Potemkin's forces won their naval confrontation with the Turks with few losses, and began thesiege of Ochakov, a Turkish stronghold and the main Russian war aim. Less promising was that St. Petersburg, exposed after Russia's best forces departed for Crimea, was now under threat from Sweden in theRusso-Swedish War of 1788–90.[90] Potemkin refused to write regularly with news of the war in the south, compounding Catherine's anxiety.[91]
Potemkin argued with Suvorov and Catherine herself, who were both anxious to assault Ochakov, which the Turks twice managed to supply by sea. Finally, on 6 December, the assault began and four hours later the city was taken, a coup for Potemkin. Nearly ten thousand Turks had been killed at a cost of (only) two-and-a-half thousand Russians.[92] Catherine wrote that "you [Potemkin] have shut the mouths of everyone... [and can now] show magnanimity to your blind and empty-headed critics".[93]
Potemkin then visited the naval yard at Vitovka, founded Nikolayev, and traveled on to St. Petersburg, arriving in February 1789.[92] In May he left once more for the front, having agreed on contingency plans with Catherine should Russia be forced into war with either Prussia or the upstart Poland, which had recently successfully demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from its territory. (Catherine herself was just about to change favorites for the final time, replacing Dmitriev-Mamonov withPlaton Zubov.) Back on the Turkish front, Potemkin advanced towards the fortress ofBender on theDniester river.[94]
The summer and autumn of 1789 saw numerous victories against the Turks,[95] including theBattle of Focşani in July; in early September, theBattle of Rymnik and the capture of bothKaushany andHadjibey (modern-day Odesa); and finally the surrender of the Turkish fortress atAkkerman in late September. The massive fortress at Bender surrendered in November without a fight.[nb 3][96] Potemkin opened up a lavish court atIași, the capital ofMoldavia, to "winter like a sultan, revel in his mistresses, build his towns, create his regiments—and negotiate peace with [the Turks]... he was emperor of all he surveyed".[97] Potemkin even established a newspaper,Le Courrier de Moldavie. His preferred lover at the time—though he had others—was Praskovia Potemkina, an affair which continued into 1790. Potemkin renamed two ships in her honor.[98] As part of the diplomatic machinations, Potemkin was given the new title of "GrandHetman of the Black Sea and Yekaterinoslav Cossack Hosts"[99] and in March he assumed personal control of the Black Sea fleet as Grand Admiral.[100]
Potemkin's forces succeeded in advancing deep into Ottoman territory,capturing the fortress at Izmail (lower left). The ultimate result of the war would be the ceding of the land between the Bug and Dniester rivers (striped) to Russia.
In July 1790, the Russian Baltic Fleet was defeated by the Swedish at theBattle of Svensksund. Despite the damage, the silver lining for the Russians was that the Swedes now felt able to negotiate on an even footing and a peace was soon signed (Treaty of Värälä on 14 August 1790) based on thestatus quo ante bellum, thus ending the threat of invasion.[100] The peace also freed up military resources for the war against the Turks. Potemkin had moved his ever more lavish court to Bender and there were soon more successes against Turkey, including the capture ofBatal-Pasha and, on the second attempt, ofKiliya on theDanube. By the end of November, only one major target remained: the Turkish fortress ofIzmail.[101] At Potemkin's request, General Suvorov commanded the assault, which proved to be costly but effective. The victory was commemorated by Russia's first, albeit unofficial, national anthem, "Let the thunder of victory sound!", written byGavrila Derzhavin andOsip Kozlovsky.[102]
After two years, he returned to St. Petersburg to face the threat of war against an Anglo-Prussian coalition in addition to the war with Turkey. His return was widely celebrated with the "Carnival of Prince Potemkin". The Prince came across as polite and charming though his latest mistress, Princess Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, appeared sidelined,[nb 4][103] and Potemkin found himself embroiled in court intrigue whilst trying to force Zubov out. Catherine and Potemkin fought over military strategy; the Empress wanted no compromise, while Potemkin wanted to buy time by appeasing the Prussians.[104][105]
Fortunately for the Russians, the Anglo-Prussian alliance collapsed and a British ultimatum that Russia should accept thestatus quo ante bellum was withdrawn. In this way, the threat of a wider war receded.[105] Though Russia was still at war with the Ottomans, Potemkin's focus was now Poland. Potemkin had conservative allies includingFelix Potocki, whose schemes were so diverse that they have yet to be fully untangled. For example, one idea was for Potemkin to declare himself king.[106]
Success on the Turkish front continued, mostly attributable to Potemkin. He now had the opportunity to confront the Turks and dictate a peace, but that would mean leaving Catherine. His procrastination soured Catherine's attitude towards him, a situation compounded by Potemkin's choice of the married Princess Paskovia Adreevna Golitsyna (née Shuvalova) as his latest mistress.[107] In the end, Potemkin was given the requisite authority to negotiate with the Turks (and, afterwards, to pursue his Polish ambitions), and dispatched by Catherine back to the south. She sent a note after him, reading "Goodbye my friend, I kiss you".[108]
Potemkin fell ill in the fever-ridden city ofIași, then often known as Jassy in English, although he kept busy, overseeing peace talks,[nb 5] planning his assault on Poland, and preparing the army for renewed war in the south. He fasted briefly and recovered some strength, but refused medicine and began to feast once again, consuming a "ham, a salted goose and three or four chickens".[109] On 13 October [O.S. October 2], he felt better and dictated a letter to Catherine before collapsing once more. Later, he awoke and dispatched his entourage to Nikolayev.[110] On October 16 [O.S. October 5] 1791 Potemkin died in the opensteppe, 60 km from Iași.[111] Picking up on contemporary rumor, historians such as the PolishJerzy Łojek have suggested that he waspoisoned because his madness made him a liability,[112] but this is rejected by Montefiore, who suggests he succumbed tobronchial pneumonia instead.[113]
Potemkin was embalmed, and a funeral was held for him in Iași. Eight days after his death, he was buried. Catherine was distraught and ordered social life in St. Petersburg be put on hold.Derzhavin's odeWaterfall lamented Potemkin's death. Likewise many in the military establishment had looked upon Potemkin as a father figure and were especially saddened by his demise.[114] Polish contemporaryStanisław Małachowski claimed thatAleksandra von Engelhardt, a niece of Potemkin's and the wife ofFranciszek Ksawery Branicki, a magnate and prominent leader of theTargowica Confederation, worried for the fate of Poland after the death of the man who had planned to revitalise the Polish state with himself as its new head.[115]
Potemkin had used the state treasury as a personal bank, preventing the resolution of his financial affairs to this day. Catherine purchased theTauride Palace and his art collection from his estate, and paid off his debts. Consequently, he left a relative fortune.[114]
Catherine's son Paul, who succeeded to the throne in 1796, attempted to undo as many of Potemkin's reforms as possible. The Tauride Palace was turned into a barracks, and the city ofGregoripol, which had been named in Potemkin's honor, was renamed.[116]
Potemkin's grave survived a destruction order issued by Paul and was eventually displayed by theBolsheviks. His remains appeared to lie in his tomb atSt. Catherine's Cathedral inKherson. The exact whereabouts of some of his internal organs, including his heart and brain first kept atGolia Monastery in Iași, remain unknown.[117] Pro-Russian officials during theRussian invasion of Ukraine said that his remains were taken from his tomb and transported to Russia.[118] This was the ninth time that Potemkin's remains were moved.[119]
Potemkin "exuded both menace and welcome"; he was arrogant, demanding of his courtiers, and very changeable in his moods, but also fascinating, warm, and kind. It was generally agreed among his female companions that he was "amply endowed with 'sex appeal'".[120]
Louis Philippe, comte de Ségur described him as "colossal like Russia", "an inconceivable mixture of grandeur and pettiness, laziness and activity, bravery and timidity, ambition and insouciance". The internal contrast was evident throughout his life: he frequented both church and numerousorgies, for example. In Ségur's view, onlookers had a tendency to unjustly attribute to Catherine alone the successes of the period and to Potemkin the failures. An eccentric workaholic, Potemkin was vain and a great lover of jewelry (a taste he did not always remember to pay for),[citation needed] but he dislikedsycophancy and was sensitive about his appearance, particularly his lost eye. He only agreed to have portraits made of him twice, in 1784 and again in 1791, both times byJohann Baptist von Lampi and from an angle which disguised his injury.[121] Potemkin was often noted for his uncouth behavior, most notably his unscrupulous sexual liaisons and biting his nails.[122] Potemkin's nail-biting was so persistent that it was frequently noticed by courtiers and guests, and resulted inhangnail.[121]
It is possible that Potemkin was affected bybipolar disorder. His highs and lows, his inability to follow through on his ideas, his material and sexual excesses, his impulsive whims, his energy and lethargy, and his depressive spells suggest some kind of bipolar disorder. In a time that was not aware of mental illness, Potemkin, and the people in his life such as Catherine, suffered from this lack of understanding.[123]
Potemkin was an intellectual. ThePrince of Ligne noted that Potemkin had "natural abilities [and] an excellent memory". He was interested in history, generally knowledgeable, and loved the classical music of the period, as well as opera. He liked all food, both peasant and fine, his favorites including roast beef and potatoes; while his anglophilia meant that English gardens were prepared wherever he went.[121] A practical politician, his political ideas were "quintessentially Russian", and he believed in the superiority of theTsarist autocracy. He once described theFrench revolutionaries as "a pack of madmen".[124]One evening, at the height of his power, Potemkin declared to his dinner guests:[125]
Everything I have ever wanted, I have... I wanted high rank, I have it; I wanted medals, I have them; I loved gambling, I have lost vast sums; I liked giving parties, I've given magnificent ones; I enjoy building houses, I've raised palaces; I liked buying estates, I have many; I adore diamonds and beautiful things – no individual in Europe owns rarer or more exquisite stones. In a word, all my passions have been sated. I am entirely happy!
Ultimately, Potemkin proved a controversial figure. Criticisms include "laziness,corruption, debauchery, indecision, extravagance, falsification, military incompetence, and disinformation on a vast scale", but supporters hold that "the sybaritism [devotion to luxury] and extravagance... are truly justified", stressing Potemkin's "intelligence, force of personality, spectacular vision, courage, generosity and great achievements".[126] Although not a military genius, he was "seriously able" in military matters.[126] Potemkin's contemporary Ségur was quick to criticise, writing that "nobody thought out a plan more swiftly [than Potemkin], carried it out more slowly and abandoned it more easily".[127] Another contemporary, the ScotsmanSir John Sinclair, added that Potemkin had "great abilities" but was ultimately a "worthless and dangerous character".[128] Russian opponents such asSemyon Vorontsov agreed: the Prince had "lots of intelligence, intrigue and credit", but lacked "knowledge, application and virtue".[128]
Varvara Galitzine (née Engelhardt), one of Potemkin's favourite nieces and at one time also his lover
Potemkin had no legitimate descendants, though it is probable he had illegitimate issue.Elizabeth Temkina was the once-alleged daughter of Catherine the Great and Grigory Potemkin.
Four of his five sisters lived long enough to bear children,[129] but only the daughters of his sister Marfa Elena (sometimes rendered as 'Helen') received Potemkin's special attention. The five unmarriedEngelhardt sisters arrived in court in 1775 on the direction of their recently widowed father Vassily.[130] Legend suggests Potemkin soon seduced many of the girls, one of whom was twelve or thirteen at the time. An affair with the third eldest, Varvara, can be verified; after that had subsided, Potemkin formed close—and probably amorous—relationships successively with Alexandra, the second eldest, and Ekaterina, the fifth.[131]
Potemkin also had influential relatives. Potemkin's sister Maria, for example, married Russian senatorNikolay Samoylov: their sonAlexander was decorated for his service under Potemkin in the army; their daughter Ekaterina married first into the Raevsky family, and then the wealthy landowner Lev Davydov. She had children with both husbands, including highly decorated GeneralNikolay Raevsky, Potemkin's great-nephew.[129] His wider family included several distant cousins, among them CountPavel Potemkin, another decorated military figure, whose brother Mikhail married Potemkin's nieceTatiana Engelhardt.[132] A distant nephew,Felix Yusupov, helped murderRasputin in 1916.[129]
^abA number of dates as late as 1742 have been found on record; the veracity of any one is unlikely to be proved. This is his "official" birth-date as given on his tombstone.
^A previous town with the same founded in 1775 but in a badly chosen location was duly renamedNovomskovsk.
^Under the terms of the surrender, the garrison was allowed to leave unharmed, but three hundred guns were captured by the Russians in the process.
^Dolgorukaya was soon replaced by a new mistress, Sophie (de) Witte (nicknamed "The Beautiful Greek"), who was renowned in the courts of Europe at that time and had an accommodating husband.
^The talks, which were continued by Catherine's secretary and foreign ministerAlexander Bezborodko, led to theTreaty of Jassy, in which Russia annexed a significant amount of land from the Ottomans.
^abCarroll, Leslie (2012).Royal Romances: Titillating Tales of Passion and Power in the Palaces of Europe. New York: New American Library. p. 199.ISBN978-0-451-23808-5.
Pascu, Giorge (1940).Calatori straini în Moldova si Muntenia în secolul XVIII : Carra, Bauer si Struve (in Romanian). Iași: Institutul de Arte Grafice "Bravo".
Rounding, Virginia (2006).Catherine the Great. London: Hutchinson.ISBN978-0-09-179992-2.
Smith, Douglas (ed. and tr.),Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin (DeKalb, Northern Illinois University Press, 2004).
Soloveytchik, George (1938).Potemkin. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved6 January 2011.
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