This article is about the historical region comprising northeastern Iran, parts of Afghanistan and Central Asia. For the Iranian province of Khorasan, seeKhorasan province. For other uses, seeKhorasan (disambiguation).
Region
Khorasan
خراسان بزرگ
Region
Khorasan and neighbouring regions
Khorasan and its surroundings in the 7th and 8th centuries
The extent of the region referred to asKhorasan varied over time. In its stricter historical sense, it comprised the present territories ofnortheastern Iran, parts ofAfghanistan and southern parts ofCentral Asia, extending as far as theAmu Darya (Oxus) river. However, the name has often been used in a loose sense to include a wider region that included most ofTransoxiana (encompassingBukhara andSamarqand in present-dayUzbekistan),[3] extended westward to theCaspian coast[4] and to theDasht-e Kavir[5] southward toSistan,[6][5] and eastward to thePamir Mountains.[5][4]Greater Khorasan is today sometimes used to distinguish the larger historical region from the formerKhorasan Province ofIran (1906–2004), which roughly encompassed the western portion of the historical Greater Khorasan.[2]
The nameKhorāsān isPersian (fromMiddle PersianXwarāsān, sp.xwlʾsʾn', meaning "where the sun arrives from" or "the Eastern Province").[7][8] The name was first given to the eastern province ofPersia (Ancient Iran) during theSasanian Empire[9] and was used from the lateMiddle Ages in distinction to neighbouring Transoxiana.[10][11][12] The Sassanian nameXwarāsān has in turn been argued to be acalque of theBactrian name of the region,Miirosan (Bactrian spelling: μιιροσανο,[13] μιροσανο, earlier μιυροασανο), which had the same meaning 'sunrise, east' (corresponding to a hypothetical Proto-Iranian form*miθrāsāna;[14] seeMithra, Bactrian μιυρο [mihr],[15] for the relevantsolar deity). The province was often subdivided into four quarters, such thatNishapur (present-day Iran),Marv (present-dayTurkmenistan),Herat andBalkh (present-day Afghanistan) were the centers, respectively, of the westernmost, northernmost, central, and easternmost quarters.[3]
Khorasan was first established as anadministrative division in the 6th century (approximately after 520) by theSasanians, during the reign ofKavad I (r. 488–496, 498/9–531) orKhosrow I (r. 531–579),[16] and comprised the eastern and northeastern parts of the empire. The use of BactrianMiirosan 'the east' as an administrative designation underAlkhan rulers in the same region is possibly the forerunner of the Sasanian administrative division of Khurasan,[17][18][19] occurring after their takeover ofHephthalite territories south of the Oxus. The transformation of the term and its identification with a larger region is thus a development of the late Sasanian and early Islamic periods.Early Islamic usage often regarded everywhere east ofJibal or what was subsequently termedIraq Ajami (Persian Iraq), as being included in a vast and loosely defined region of Khorasan, which might even extend to theIndus Valley and the Pamir Mountains. The boundary between these two was the region surrounding the cities ofGurgan andQumis. In particular, theGhaznavids,Seljuqs andTimurids divided their empires into Iraqi and Khorasani regions. Khorasan is believed to have been bounded in the southwest by desert and the town ofTabas, known as "the Gate of Khorasan",[20]: 562 from which it extended eastward to themountains of central Afghanistan.[4][5] Sources from the 10th century onwards refer to areas in the south of theHindu Kush as the Khorasan Marches, forming afrontier region between Khorasan andHindustan.[21][22]
First established in the 6th century as one of four administrative (military) divisions by theSasanian Empire,[23] the scope of the region has varied considerably during its nearly 1,500-year history. Initially, the Khorasan division of the Sasanian Empire covered the northeastern military gains of the empire, at its height including cities such asNishapur,Herat,Merv,Faryab,Taloqan,Balkh,Bukhara,Badghis,Abiward,Gharjistan,Tus andSarakhs.[6]
With the rise of theUmayyad Caliphate, the designation was inherited and likewise stretched as far as their military gains in the east, starting off with the military installations atNishapur andMerv, slowly expanding eastwards intoTokharistan andSogdia. Under theCaliphs, Khorasan was the name of one of the three political zones under their dominion (the other two beingEraq-e Arab "Arabic Iraq" andEraq-e Ajam "Non-Arabic Iraq or Persian Iraq").[citation needed] Under theUmayyad andAbbasid caliphates, Khorasan was divided into four major sections or quarters (rub′), each section based on a single major city: Nishapur, Merv, Herat and Balkh.[24] By the 10th century,Ibn Khordadbeh and theHudud al-'Alam mentions what roughly encompasses the previous regions ofAbarshahr, Tokharistan and Sogdia asKhwarasan proper. They further report the southern part of the Hindu Kush, i.e. the regions ofSistan,Rukhkhudh,Zabulistan andKabul etc. to make up theKhorasanmarches, a frontier region between Khorasan andHindustan.[25][21][5]
By the late Middle Ages, the term lost its administrative significance, in the west only being loosely applied among the Turko-Persian dynasties of modern Iran to all its territories that lay east and north-east of theDasht-e Kavir desert. It was therefore subjected to constant change, as the size of their empires changed. In the east,Khwarasan likewise became a term associated with the great urban centers of Central Asia. It is mentioned in theBaburnama (from the 1580s) that:
The people of Hindustān call every country beyond their own Khorasān, in the same manner as the Arabs term all except Arabia,Ajem. On the road between Hindustān and Khorasān, there are two great marts: the one Kābul, the otherKandahār. Caravans, from Ferghāna, Tūrkestān, Samarkand, Balkh, Bokhāra, Hissār, andBadakhshān, all resort to Kābul; while those from Khorasān repair toKandahār. This country lies between Hindustān and Khorasān.[22]
In modern times, the term has been source of great nostalgia and nationalism, especially amongst theTajiks of Central Asia.[citation needed] Many Tajiks regard Khorasan as an integral part of their national identity, which has preserved an interest in the term, including its meaning and cultural significance, both in common discussion and academia, despite its falling out of political use in the region.[26]
According to Afghan historianGhulam Mohammad Ghobar (1897–1978), Afghanistan's current Persian-speaking territories formed the major portion of Khorasān,[27] as two of the four main capitals of Khorasān (Herat and Balkh) are now located in Afghanistan. Ghobar uses the terms"Proper Khorasan" and "Improper Khorasan" in his book to distinguish between the usage of Khorasān in its strict sense and its usage in a loose sense. According to him, Proper Khorasan contained regions lying between Balkh in the east, Merv in the north,Sistan in the south, Nishapur in the west and Herat, known as thePearl of Khorasan, in the center. Improper Khorasan's boundaries extended to as far asHazarajat andKabul in the east,Baluchistan in the south, Transoxiana and Khwarezm in the north, andDamghan andGorgan in the west.[27]
An 1886 map of the 10th centuryNear East showing Khorasan east of the province ofJibal.
Ancient era
During the Sasanian era, likely in the reign ofKhusrow I, Persia was divided into four regions (known askust Middle Persian),Khwārvarān in the west, apāxtar in the north, nīmrūz in the south and Khorasan in the east. Since the Sasanian territories were more or less remained stable up to Islamic conquests, it can be concluded that Sasanian Khorasan was bordered to the south by Sistan and Kerman, to the west by the central deserts of modern Iran, and to the east by China and India.[25]
In the Sasanian era, Khorasan was further divided into four smaller regions, and each region was ruled by amarzban. These four regions were Nishapur, Marv, Herat and Balkh.[25]
An earlyturquoise mine in theMadan village of Khorasan during the early 20th century
Khorasan in the east saw some conflict with theHephthalites who became the new rulers in the area but the borders remained stable. Being the eastern parts of the Sassanids and further away fromArabia, Khorasan region was conquered after the remaining Persia.[citation needed] The last Sassanid king of Persia,Yazdgerd III, moved the throne to Khorasan following the Arab invasion in the western parts of the empire. After the assassination of the king, Khorasan was conquered by Arab Muslims in 647 AD. Like other provinces of Persia it became a province of theUmayyad Caliphate.[28]
The first movement against the Arab conquest was led byAbu Muslim Khorasani between 747 and 750. Originally fromIsfahan, scholars believe Abu Muslim was probably Persian. It's possible he may have been born a slave. According to the ancient Persian historianAl-Shahrastani, he was aKaysanite. This revolutionaryShi'a movement rejected the three Caliphs that had precededAli.[29]
Abu Muslim helped theAbbasids come to power but was later killed by Al-Mansur, an Abbasid Caliph.[citation needed] The first kingdom independent from Arab rule was established in Khorasan byTahir Phoshanji in 821, but it seems that it was more a matter of political and territorial gain. Tahir had helped the Caliph subdue other nationalistic movements in other parts of Persia such asMaziar's movement inTabaristan.[30]
Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century, the majority of Islamic archaeological efforts were focused on the medieval era, predominantly in areas near what is todayCentral Asia.[32]
After the invasion of Persia under Rashidun was completed in five years and almost all of the Persian territories came under Arab control, it also inevitable created new problems for the caliphate. Pockets of tribal resistance continued for centuries in theAfghan territories. During the 7th century,Arab armies made their way into the region of Afghanistan from Khorasan.[citation needed] A second problem was as a corollary to the Muslim conquest of Persia, the Muslims became neighbors of the city states ofTransoxiana. Although Transoxiana was included in the loosely defined "Turkestan" region, only the ruling elite of Transoxiana was partially of Turkic origins whereas the local population was mostly a diverse mix of local Iranian populations. As the Arabs reached Transoxiana following the conquest of the Sassanid Persian Empire, local Iranian-Turkic and Arab armies clashed over the control of Transoxiana's Silk Road cities.[citation needed] In particular, the Turgesh under the leadership of Suluk, and Khazars under Barjik clashed with their Arab neighbours in order to control this economically important region. Two notable Umayyad generals,Qutayba ibn Muslim andNasr ibn Sayyar, were instrumental in the eventual conquest.[citation needed] In July 738, at the age of 74,Nasr was appointed as governor of Khorasan. Despite his age, he was widely respected both for his military record, his knowledge of the affairs of Khorasan and his abilities as a statesman.Julius Wellhausen wrote of him that "His age did not affect the freshness of his mind, as is testified not only by his deeds, but also by the verses in which he gave expression to his feelings till the very end of his life". However, in the climate of the times, his nomination owed more to his appropriate tribal affiliation than his personal qualities.[35]
In 724, immediately after the rise ofHisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743) to the throne, Asad's brotherKhalid al-Qasri was appointed to the important post ofgovernor of Iraq, with responsibility over the entire Islamic East, which he held until 738. Khalid in turn named Asad as governor of Khorasan. The two brothers thus became, according toPatricia Crone, "among the most prominent men of the Marwanid period".[36][37] Asad's arrival in Khorasan found the province in peril: his predecessor,Muslim ibn Sa'id al-Kilabi, had just attempted a campaign againstFerghana and suffered a major defeat, the so-called "Day of Thirst", at the hands of theTurgeshTurks and theSoghdian principalities ofTransoxiana that had risen up against Muslim rule.[38][39]
From the early days of theMuslim conquests, Arab armies were divided into regiments drawn from individual tribes or tribal confederations (butun or‘asha‘ir). Despite the fact that many of these groupings were recent creations, created for reasons of military efficiency rather than any common ancestry, they soon developed a strong and distinct identity.[citation needed] By the beginning of the Umayyad period, this system progressed to the formation of ever-larger super-groupings, culminating in thetwo super-groups: the northern Arab Mudaris orQaysis, and the south Arabs or "Yemenis" (Yaman), dominated by the Azd andRabi'ah tribes.[citation needed] By the 8th century, this division had become firmly established across the Caliphate and was a source of constant internal instability, as the two groups formed in essence two rival political parties, jockeying for power and separated by a fierce hatred for each other.[40][41] DuringHisham ibn Abd al-Malik's reign, the Umayyad government appointed Mudaris as governors in Khorasan, except for Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri's tenure in 735–738. Nasr's appointment came four months after Asad's death.[citation needed] In the interim, the sources report variously that the province was run either by theSyrian general Ja'far ibn Hanzala al-Bahrani or by Asad's lieutenant Juday' al-Kirmani. At any rate, the sources agree that al-Kirmani stood at the time as the most prominent man in Khorasan and should have been the clear choice for governor. His Yemeni roots (he was the leader of the Azd in Khorasan), however, made him unpalatable to the Caliph.[42][43]
Khorasan became the headquarters of theAbbasid Revolution against theUmayyads. It was led byAbu Muslim, who himself belonged to Khorasan. This province was part of the Iranian world that had been heavily colonised by Arab tribes following theMuslim conquest with the intent of replacing Umayyad dynasty which is proved to be successful under the sign of theBlack Standard.[44]
This articleis missing information about post-Abbasid, pre-Modern era. Please expand the articleby making an edit requestto include this information. Further details may exist on thetalk page.(June 2023)
Between the early 16th and early 18th centuries, parts of Khorasan were contested between theSafavids and theUzbeks.[45] A part of the Khorasan region was conquered in 1722 by theGhilji Pashtuns fromKandahar and became part of theHotaki dynasty from 1722 to 1729.[46][47]Nader Shah recaptured Khorasan in 1729 and choseMashhad as the capital of Persia. Following his assassination in 1747, the eastern parts of Khorasan, includingHerat were annexed with theDurrani Empire. Mashhad area was under control of Nader Shah's grandsonShahrukh Afshar until it was captured by theQajar dynasty in 1796.[citation needed] In 1856, the Iranians, under the Qajar dynasty, briefly recaptured Herat; by theTreaty of Paris of 1857, signed between Iran and the British Empire to end theAnglo-Persian War, the Iranian troops withdrew fromHerat.[48] Later, in 1881, Iran relinquished its claims to a part of the northern areas of Khorasan to theRussian Empire, principally comprisingMerv, by theTreaty of Akhal (also known as theTreaty of Akhal-Khorasan).[49]
Cultural importance
Timurid conquerorBabur exiles his treacherous relative Muḥammad Ḥusaym Mīrzā to Khorasan.
There have been many archaeological sites throughout Khorasan, however many of these expeditions were illegal or committed in the sole pursuit of profit, leaving many sites without documentation or record.[32]
^abMinorsky, V. (1938). "Geographical Factors in Persian Art".Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, 9(3), 621–652.
^abc"Khorasan".Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved2010-10-21.historical region and realm comprising a vast territory now lying in northeastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, and northern Afghanistan. The historical region extended, along the north, from the Amu Darya westward to theCaspian Sea and, along the south, from the fringes of the central Iranian deserts eastward to themountains of central Afghanistan. Arab geographers even spoke of its extending to the boundaries ofIndia.
^abcdeLambton, Ann K.S. (1988).Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia: Aspects of Administrative, Economic and Social History, 11th–14th Century. Columbia Lectures on Iranian Studies. New York, NY: Bibliotheca Persica. p. 404.In the early centuries of Islam, Khurasan generally included all the Muslim provinces east of theGreat Desert. In this larger sense, it included Transoxiana, Sijistan and Quhistan. Its Central Asian boundary was theChinese desert and the Pamirs, while its Indian boundary lay along the Hindu Kush toward India.
^abBosworth, C.E. (1986).Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 5, Khe – Mahi (New ed.). Leiden [u.a.]: Brill [u.a.] pp. 55–59.ISBN90-04-07819-3.
^Sykes, M. (1914). "Khorasan: The Eastern Province of Persia".Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, 62(3196), 279–286.
^A compound ofkhwar (meaning "sun") andāsān (fromāyān, literally meaning "to come" or "coming" or "about to come"). Thus the nameKhorasan (orKhorāyānخورآيان) means "sunrise", viz. "Orient, East".Humbach, Helmut, and Djelani Davari, "Nāmé Xorāsān"Archived 2011-01-02 at theWayback Machine, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz; Persian translation by Djelani Davari, published in Iranian Languages Studies Website.MacKenzie, D. (1971).A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary (p. 95). London: Oxford University Press.The Persian wordKhāvar-zamīn (Persian:خاور زمین), meaning "the eastern land", has also been used as an equivalent term.DehKhoda, "Lughat Nameh DehKhoda"Archived 2011-07-18 at theWayback Machine
^"Khorāsān".britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved8 December 2018.
^abPetersen, A. (2014). Islamic Archaeology. In: Smith, C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer, New York, NY.doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_554
^Avery, Peter; Hambly, Gavin; Melville, Charles, eds. (10 October 1991).The Cambridge History of Iran (Vol. 7): From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 183,394–395.ISBN978-0-521-20095-0.
^Sicker, Martin (1988).The Bear and the Lion: Soviet Imperialism and Iran. Praeger. p. 14.ISBN978-0-275-93131-5.
