ThePrince of Transylvania (Hungarian:erdélyi fejedelem,German:Fürst von Siebenbürgen,Latin:princeps Transsylvaniae,Romanian:principele Transilvaniei[1]) was the head of state of thePrincipality of Transylvania from the late-16th century until the mid-18th century.John Sigismund Zápolya was the first to adopt the title in 1570, but its use became stable[clarification needed] only from 1576.
The integration ofTransylvania into the newly establishedKingdom of Hungary began around 1003.[2][3] The province became subject to intensive colonization,[4] leading to the arrival and settlement of colonists of diverse origin, including theHungarian-speakingSzékelys and theEthnic Germans.[5] The territory of Transylvania was divided for administrative reasons within territorial units known as "counties" and "seats".[6]
The seven Transylvanian counties (Doboka,Fehér,Hunyad,Kolozs,Küküllő,Szolnok, andTorda County) were institutions primarily run bylocal noblemen.[7] However, their heads orispáns[8] were subject to the authority of a higher official, thevoivode who was appointed by thekings of Hungary.[9] TheVoivode of Transylvania had a number of administrative, military and judicial responsibilities.[10] For instance, joint general assemblies of the seven counties were convoked and headed by the voivode or his deputy[citation needed], customarily atTorda (today Turda).[8] These assemblies primarily functioned as courts-of-justice,[11] but judges for the counties were also elected by them.[8]
Instead of counties, theTransylvanian Saxon community was primarily organized into seats and districts.[12] They were independent of the authority of the voivodes.[13] In 1469, KingMatthias Corvinus of Hungary authorized all Saxons' seats to elect their own heads.[14] Seven years later, the same monarch set up the "Saxon University" unifying all Saxon seats and districts in Transylvania, which was headed by the elected major ofNagyszeben (German: Hermannstadt, Romanian: Sibiu).[14] Initially, the Székelys were likewise independent of the authority of the voivodes, since they were led bytheir own count, an official appointed by the sovereign.[12]
Although the Saxons and the Székelys endeavoured to preserve their direct connection to the monarchs, "the first institutional contacts between the nobility, the Székelys and the Saxons were established through the voivode" from the early 14th century.[15] For instance, the representatives of the Saxons and the Székelys were often present at the general assemblies of the noblemen headed by the voivodes.[15] Furthermore, voivodes were also appointed Count of the Székelys by the monarch from the middle of the 15th century, thus the two offices were united by custom.[16] In contrast with the representatives of the noblemen, the Saxons and the Székelys, Romaniancneazes were only twice (in 1291 and in 1355) invited to the general assemblies.[11]
The leaders of the noblemen from the seven counties, the Saxons, and the Székelys formed an alliance against "all internal and external threat to the province"[17] in the days of theBudai Nagy Antal Revolt in 1437.[18] This formal alliance of the "Three Nations of Transylvania" was confirmed in 1459, aimed primarily againstMichael Szilágyi, the regent-governor of the Kingdom of Hungary.[19] During the rebellion of peasants led byGyörgy Dózsa in 1514, VoivodeJohn Zápolya convoked the assembly of the Three Nations.[20]
In 1526, in theBattle of Mohács, theOttoman Empire defeated the royal army of Hungary and killedKing Louis II. The Ottomans then withdrew.[citation needed]
The throne was claimed by Louis' brother-in-lawArchduke Ferdinand of Austria, and by John Zápolya, both backed by factions ofHungarian magnates. Ferdinand drove John out of Hungary, whereupon John offered allegiance to Ottoman SultanSuleiman the Magnificent in return for support. Suleiman invadedAustria while John regained his throne. Suleiman was repulsed from Austria, and by a treaty in 1538, Ferdinand became King of Hungary, holding the western parts, while John became King, holding the eastern parts, including Transylvania (called by historians the "Eastern Hungarian Kingdom").[citation needed]
Thus from being a fully sovereign kingdom, Hungary had become either a possession of theHouse of Habsburg or an Ottoman vassal state.[citation needed]
In 1538, John named Ferdinand his successor as King. But he had a son,John Sigismund Zápolya, just before he died in 1540. The Hungarian Diet elected him King as John II Sigismund, and when Ferdinand invaded, the RegentBishop Martinuzzi called on Suleiman to protect his vassal. Suleiman drove out Ferdinand, then put central Hungary under direct Turkish rule. He allocated Transylvania and easternRoyal Hungary to John II Sigismund.
In 1551, Bishop Martinuzzi arranged for John II Sigismund to abdicate his royal title in favor of Ferdinand, in return for being recognized as vassal lord of the "East Hungarian" lands.
All the territories of the Kingdom of Hungary which had remained free of direct Ottoman occupation were thus reunited under Ferdinand's rule in 1551.[21] But Ottoman attacks continued, and Ferdinand could not protect "Eastern Hungary". In 1556, the Diet invited "King John's son" (that is, John II Sigismund) and his mother to resume the government of the territories east of theTisza.[22] John II Sigismund continued to style himself "elected king" of Hungary until 1570.
In 1570, John II Sigismund again abdicated as King in favor of Ferdinand's successor,Emperor Maximilian II. This was expressed in thetreaty of Speyer. John II Sigismund adopted the new style "Prince of Transylvania and Lord of parts of Hungary".[23][24]
John Sigismund's successor,Stephen Báthory, however, adopted the title the one-time royal governors of Transylvania used and styled himselfvoivode.[24][25] Furthermore, he secretly swore allegiance to King Maximilian I of Hungary.[25] Stephen Báthory only adopted the stylePrince when he was electedKing of Poland in 1576.[24][26] Upon his death in 1586, his princely title was inherited by his nephew,Sigismund Báthory.[24][26] The new style of therulers of Transylvania and thePartium[citation needed] was also confirmed by King Maximilian I's successor,Emperor Rudolph II on January 28, 1595.[27]
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Transylvanian monarchs used the following style and titles: "His Excellency, by the grace of God,[28]Prince of Transylvania, Lord of parts of Hungary, andCount of the Székelys".[24] In addition,Sigismund Báthory adopted the title of "Prince of Wallachia andMoldavia" in 1595.[29]
From 1570 to 1699, the princes of Transylvania were not recognized as independent monarchs. At times they acknowledged Ottomansuzerainty, and at other times accepted the rule of the Kingdom of Hungary. According to the teachings of theHanafi school ofIslamic jurisprudence, Transylvania was part of the "House of Agreement"(Dâr al ahd'), that is a territory with a transitory status between the lands fully integrated in the Ottoman Empire and independent states.[30] Accordingly, when ascending the throne each prince received an official document from the sultan which described the prince's rights and obligations. These documents orahidnâmes confirmed the right of the Transylvanian estates to elect their princes freely, "guaranteed the territorial integrity of the principality", and promised military assistance to the Prince in case of invasion by his enemies. On the other hand, the princes were obliged to pay a yearly tribute and to assist the Ottomans in their military operations.[31]
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After theRákóczi's War of Independence the princes were effectively replaced withgovernors. The last princeFrancis II Rákóczi spent the rest of his life in exile.
