Economic, social and political changes in the Grand Duchy of Finland paralleled those in the Russian Empire and the rest ofEurope. The economy grew slowly during the first half of the 19th century. The reign ofAlexander II (1855–1881) saw significant cultural, social and intellectual progress, and an industrializing economy. Tensions increased afterSaint Petersburg adoptedRussification policies in 1898; the new circumstances saw the reduction of Finnish autonomy and cultural expression. Unrest in Russia and Finland during theFirst World War (1914–1918) and the subsequentcollapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 resulted in theFinnish Declaration of Independence and the end of the Grand Duchy.[3]
An extendedSouthwest Finland was made a titulargrand duchy in 1581, whenKing Johan III of Sweden, who as a prince had been theduke of Finland (1556–1561/63), extended the list of subsidiary titles of thekings of Sweden considerably.[4][5] The new title ofgrand duke of Finland did not result in any Finnish autonomy, as Finland was an integrated part of theKingdom of Sweden with full parliamentary representation for its counties. During the next two centuries, the title was used by some of Johan's successors on the throne, but not all. Usually, it was just a subsidiary title of the King, used only on very formal occasions. However, in 1802, as an indication of his resolve to keep Finland within Sweden in the face of increasedRussian pressure, KingGustav IV Adolf gave the title to his new-born son, Prince Carl Gustaf, who died three years later.
Napoleon sought to persuadeAlexander I of Russia to conquer Finland around the time of the signing of theTreaty of Tilsit. Alexander was reluctant to launch a war against Finland, as military campaigns were already draining the resources of theRussian Empire. The potential annexation of Finland also implied considerable financial expenditures, which Russia was unwilling to bear.[6]
During theFinnish War between Sweden and Russia, thefour Estates of occupied Finland were assembled at theDiet of Porvoo on 29 March 1809 to pledge allegiance toTsarAlexander I of Russia, who in return guaranteed that the area's laws and liberties, as well as religion, would be left unchanged. Following the Swedish defeat in the war and the signing of theTreaty of Fredrikshamn on 17 September 1809, Finland became a trueautonomous grand duchy within theRussian Empire; but the usual balance of power between monarch and diet resting on taxation was not in place, since theemperor could rely on the rest of his vast empire. The title "Grand Duke of Finland" was added to the long list of titles of the Russian tsar.
After his return to Finland in 1812, the Finnish-bornGustaf Mauritz Armfelt became counsellor to the Russian emperor. Armfelt was instrumental in securing the grand duchy as state with greater autonomy within the Russian Empire, and acquiring so-calledOld Finland that Russia had annexed from Sweden in theTreaty of Nystad (1721) and theTreaty of Åbo (1743).[7]
TheDiet of Porvoo marked the beginning of autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. Emperor Alexander I of Russia on the podium.
The formation of the grand duchy stems from theTreaty of Tilsit betweenTsarAlexander I of Russia and EmperorNapoleon I of the French. The treaty mediated peace between Russia andFrance and allied the two countries against Napoleon's remaining threats: theUnited Kingdom andSweden. Russia invaded Finland in February 1808, claimed as an effort to impose military sanctions against Sweden, but not a war of conquest, and that Russia decided to only temporarily control Finland. Collectively, the Finns were predominately anti-Russian, and Finnish guerrillas and peasant uprisings were a large obstacles for the Russians, forcing Russia to use various tactics to quash armed Finnish rebellion. Thus, in the beginning of the war,General roda VoyskFriedrich Wilhelm von Buxhoeveden, with permission of the tsar, imposed an oath of fealty on Finland, in which Russia would honour Finland'sLutheran faith, theDiet of Finland, and the Finnish estates as long as the Finns would remain loyal to the Russian imperial crown. The oath also dubbed anyone person who gave aid to the Swedish or Finnish armies a rebel.[8]
The cession of Finland to theRussian Empire in 1809 represented a significant and bitter loss for theKingdom of Sweden. For more than six centuries, Finland had formed an integral part of the Swedish realm, providing both manpower and strategic depth. Finnish participation was instrumental in Sweden's ascent to great-power status during the seventeenth century, when theSwedish Empire expanded across theBaltic region.[9]
In the eighteenth century and by the early nineteenth century, however, Sweden had entered a period of relative decline. The kingdom was economically weakened, regarded as one of the poorer states of Europe, and its political administration was often characterised by corruption and inefficiency. The geopolitical crisis leading to theFinnish War (1808–1809) arose chiefly from Sweden's refusal to accede to theContinental System -Napoleon Bonaparte's economic blockade against Britain - despite the combined diplomatic pressure of both Napoleon and EmperorAlexander I of Russia.[10][11]
The refusal placed Sweden in direct conflict with France and Russia, and ultimately precipitated the Russian invasion of Finland. Historians have generally observed that the war, and thus the loss of Finland, might have been averted had KingGustav IV Adolf pursued a foreign policy more consistent with the strategic realities of the time. TheTreaty of Fredrikshamn (September 1809) formalised the transfer, marking the end of Finland's centuries-long union with Sweden and altering the balance of power inNorthern Europe.[12]
The Finns complied, bitter over Sweden abandoning the country for their war againstDenmark andFrance, and begrudgingly embraced Russian conquest. TheDiet of Finland was now to only meet whenever requested, and was never mentioned in the manifesto published by theMinistry of Foreign Affairs. Further on, Alexander I requested a deputation of the four Finnish estates, as he expressed concern over continued Finnish resistance. The deputation refused to act without the Diet, to which Alexander agreed with, and promised the Diet would shortly be summoned. By 1809, all of Finland had been conquered and the Diet was summoned in March. Finland was then united through Russia via the crown, and Finland was able to keep the majority of its own laws, giving it autonomy.[13]
Instead of the newly acquired territory being subjected to direct rule by an imperialgovernor-general, a novel administrative system was established in Finland, drafted in part by the liberalMikhail Speransky. The new grand duchy would be governed by a Government Council, later theSenate of Finland, a body made up of Finnish citizens. The governor-general would accordingly have a relatively diminished role. Further, the emperor would deal with matters relating to Finland directly through a dedicatedSecretary of State, without the involvement of his Russian cabinet or administration. This laid the foundation for the considerable autonomy enjoyed by Finland for most of the period of Russian rule.
Alexander I was popular among the Finnish people. The only significant place in Finland where there was strong interest in liberal ideas was within the academic world of the Imperial Academy of Turku. However, these liberal ideas did not captivate the Finnish population at large but remained more of a pastime for university students during the first half of the 19th century.[14][12]
The Grand Duchy of Finland, established in 1809 following its transfer from Swedish to Russian rule, marked the beginning of Finland's own central administration. TheImperial Senate of Finland was founded that year as the highest governing body responsible for managing Finland's internal affairs. Comprising two divisions - an Economic Division overseeing civil administration and economic matters, and a Judicial Division serving as the highest court - the Senate functioned effectively as the government of Finland. Its role included preparing and implementing decisions under the emperor's authority, with matters presented to the Emperor in Saint Petersburg by a FinnishMinister-Secretary of State for Finland. This new administrative structure was significant because it allowed Finland to directly manage and benefit from its tax revenues, improving the country's conditions internally.[15]
In 1812, Emperor Alexander I moved the capital of the Grand Duchy fromTurku toHelsinki, and the territories known asOld Finland, which Sweden had ceded to Russia in the 18th century, were transferred to the Grand Duchy.Vyborg, the principal city of Old Finland, developed into a key port and industrial centre during the 19th century. Despite these administrative and economic developments, many aspects of daily life remained consistent with the Swedish era.[16]
Alexander I was concerned about the financial burden that Finland might bring. The Finnish population was encouraged to engage in broader trade, establish new factories, and improve agricultural practices. The country’s economy had to adapt to new export regulations, which for years remained unclear. Nevertheless, Russia viewed the development of Finland’s economic life favorably, seeking to prevent the territory from becoming a burden to the empire. Policymakers in Saint Petersburg even envisioned Finland’s merchant fleet as a potential competitor to the maritime powers of Western Europe.[12]
Napoleon's forces invaded Russia in June 1812. Earlier that year, in January, his armies had conqueredPomerania from Sweden. Both Sweden and Russia shared a negative stance toward Napoleon, leading to diplomatic negotiations in Saint Petersburg. In April 1812, a preliminary alliance agreement was established, though not finalized, and it was decided that a further meeting would be held in Turku in August.[14][12]
Napoleon attempted to persuade Sweden to join his side, offering the return of Pomerania and the possibility of regaining Finland. However, Sweden's strategic interests were focused on the conquest ofNorway, which at the time belonged toDenmark. Since Denmark was an ally of France, Napoleon could not accept such demands, and the negotiations between France and Sweden broke down.[14]
At the Turku meeting, Emperor Alexander I of Russia and Swedish Crown PrinceCharles John (later King Charles XIV John of Sweden) came together. The negotiations concluded with the formal ratification of a definitive alliance treaty. Under its terms, Sweden agreed to support Russia in continental European conflicts, while Russia declared its readiness to assist Sweden in its planned conquest of Norway.[14][12]
Alexander I and Russian troops occupiedParis in 1814. Among them were also Finnish soldiers and officers.
TheNapoleonic Wars ultimately ended with France's defeat, and Russian troops occupiedParis. Among the soldiers and officers serving in the Russian army were Finns. Following the collapse of Napoleonic power, Sweden succeeded in annexing Norway. Napoleon resumed the war in 1815, which ended with France's final defeat at theBattle of Waterloo. As for Sweden, the majority did not think too much about Finland's conquest, as Sweden itself annexedNorway fromDenmark in 1814 and entered a personal union with the nation.[14][12]
Despite promises of a Finnish Diet, the Diet was not called to meet until 1863 and many new laws going through the legislature were laws that would have required the approval of the Diet while under Swedish rule. Alexander went a step further to demand aFinnish House of Nobles, which organised in 1818. The house was designed to register all noble families in Finland so that the highest Finnish estate would be representative of the next Finnish Diet.[17]
Whether or not Alexander purposely ignored the existence of the Diet is debatable, with notable factors such as the fall of Napoleon and the creation of theHoly Alliance, newfound religious mysticism of the Russian crown, and the negative experience with the PolishSejm. Despite this, Alexander I ceased to give in to Finnish affairs and returned to governing Russia.[17]
Political power in Finland was held by the Imperial Senate of Finland, which had been established in 1809, but a more influential body emerged in 1811, theCommittee for Finnish Affairs, chaired by CountGustaf Mauritz Armfelt. The purpose of Finland’s political institutions was to organise and stabilise the country under the new circumstances.[12]
Alexander's death and the assimilation of Finland: 1820s–1850s
In 1823,CountArseny Zakrevsky was madeGovernor-General of Finland and quickly became unpopular among both Finns and Swedes alike. Zakrevsky abolished theCommittee for Finnish Affairs and managed to obtain the right to submit Finnish affairs to the Russian emperor, bypassing the Finnish Secretary of State. Two years later, Alexander I died (1 December [O.S. 19 November] 1825). Zakrevsky seized the opportunity to require Finland to swear an oath of fealty which would refer to the emperor as the absolute ruler of Finland – expecting that emperor would beConstantine, Alexander's next-eldest brother. However,Nicholas, younger brother of Constantine and Alexander, became emperor despite theDecembrist revolt against him in December 1825. Nicholas assured Finland's secretary of state,Robert Henrik Rehbinder, that he (Nicholas) would continue to uphold Alexander's liberal policies regarding Finland.[14]
The reign of Nicholas I was conservative in nature. His era was characterised by strict political control and censorship, especially after the Decembrist uprising. Nicholas I did not convene the Diet, but ruled by decrees, and the imperial surveillance apparatus strengthened both in Russia and Finland. Finland's development was slow but stable: new towns were founded (includingJyväskylä,Mikkeli,Heinola,Joensuu) and significant infrastructure projects such as theSaimaa Canal were built. Military readiness was reinforced, the requirements for Finnish officials to know Russian were eased, and the development of Finnish national culture was also supported to some extent. Nicholas I visited Finland frequently, and during his reign Finland was one of the most peaceful regions of the empire. The emperor's policy focused on preventing revolutionary ideas from spreading to Finland and restricting the activities of universities. However, Finland's status as an autonomous Grand Duchy remained, and the empire treated Finland with meticulousness but relatively benevolently.[14][12]
1809–1855, Finland's economy and trade developed significantly, although ultimately more slowly than in Europe's more industrialised countries. Finland's great advantage was its status as an autonomous Grand Duchy within the Russian Empire, which created a stable political and administrative foundation for the economy.[12]
The main areas of development were agriculture, industry, and trade. Agriculture gradually shifted from slash-and-burn cultivation to improving fields and emphasizing animal husbandry. In industry, the first significant units began to form, especially textile and handicraft factories established by foreign entrepreneurs, such as theFinlayson cotton factory in Tampere, which grew to become one of the largest employers. The wood and paper industries also started strongly.[12]
Trade intensified, especially towards the Russian markets, which Finland had easy access to. Exports consisted mainly of furs, wood products, tar, and other raw materials. Imports were mainly foodstuffs, such as grain, largely brought in from Russia and Germany. Finnish port cities, likeViipuri, grew into important trade centers.[12]
Although industrialisation in Finland began relatively late and slowly, economic growth was underway by the 19th century, with stronger growth accelerating only in later decades. Economic development was stimulated by the adoption of international technologies, the building of a market economy, and growing demand for Finnish products in Russia and Western Europe. Finland's own administrative bodies and autonomous status also enabled the use of tax revenues for the country's development.[12]
Thus, this period was a foundational developmental phase during which Finland gradually transformed from a traditional agrarian society to a more industrialised and commercialised statehood.[12]
Finland's general stance was one of moderation and loyalty towards Russia. Finnish Ministers Secretary of State Robert Henrik Rehbinder and countAlexander Armfelt continued countGustaf Mauritz Armfelt's policy line, in which Finland acted as a loyal part of the empire. For example, during the Polish uprising of 1830, Finnish soldiers took part in suppressing the rebellion.[14][12]
In 1830, Europe became a hotbed of revolution and reform as a result of theJuly Revolution in France.Poland, another Russian client state, saw a massive uprising against Saint Petersburg during theNovember Uprising of 1830–1831. Finland made no such move, as Russia had already won over Finnish loyalty. Thus, Russia continued its policies respecting Finnish autonomy and the quiet assimilation of the Finns into the empire. Zakrevsky died in 1831;KnyazAlexander Sergeyevich Menshikov succeeded him as Governor-General of Finland and continued Finnish appeasement.
Finns did not migrate en masse to Russia; instead, officials, officers, and later merchants and industrialists often moved to Russia. Children of Finland's upper class were sent to thePage Corps in Saint Petersburg, whereas in Finland, theHamina Cadet School operated, which trained a class loyal to the Emperor and the empire.[14][12]
Count Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt encouraged Finns to study the Russian language and become familiar with the country's history and culture. However, the main language of the Russian Imperial Court wasFrench.German served as the language of commerce.Swedish was the dominant language in Finland's government administration and academic circles. Russian did not gain popularity among the masses, but small groups became enthusiastic about the language.[12][18]
Meanwhile, Old Finland had been part of Russia since 1721. SomeKarelians, especially near the border, habitually spoke Russian alongside Finnish. Karelian merchants living near the eastern border spoke Russian for natural reasons, as Saint Petersburg offered a large market. However, movement between Finns and Russians was restricted by aborder and customs control. Finns and Russians were not free to cross the border without limitations.[12][18]
Lev Perovski, the Russian Interior Minister, supported Count Zakrevsky's ideas and promoted subtle Russification during the 1840s, but Russification did not progress because Nicholas I relaxed the language proficiency requirements for Finns regarding the Russian language. An advantage for Russia was the promotion of the Finnish language, as it distinguished Finland from Sweden. Nicholas had no reasons to Russify Finland because Finland was the calmest and most loyal part of the empire.[14][12][18]
Fredrik Cygnaeus giving a speech at the Flora Day celebration on 13 May 1848. Author of the drawing isAlex Federley.
However, Finland did experience a nationalistic revolution in the 1830s – one based around literature. This marked the beginning of theFennoman movement, a nationalistic movement that would operate in Finland until its independence. In 1831, theFinnish Literature Society was founded, which formed on the basis of appreciation of theFinnish language. Finnish was not represented as language of the scholarly elite, as most printed academic works, novels, and poetry was written in either Swedish or Russian. Copying the German reading rage,Lesewut, and subsequent Swedish mania, Finland entered the reading craze by the 1830s. This fad peaked in 1835 with the publication of TheKalevala, the Finnish epic. TheKalevala's influence on Finland was massive, and strengthened Finnish nationalism and unity. The quest for literature expanded into the 1840s and 1850s and caught the eye of the Finnish church and the Russian crown. Finnish newspapers, such asMaamiehen Ystävä [fi] (The Farmer's Friend), began publication in both urban and rural areas of Finland. However, the Swedish academic elite, the church, and the Russian government opposed Finland's literature movement.Edvard Bergenheim,Archbishop of Turku from 1850 to 1884, called for double censorship on works opposing the church and works appearing socialist or communist. The reactionary policies of theLutheran Church convinced the also reactionary Nicholas I (r. 1825–1855) to prohibit (1850) the publishing of all Finnish works that were not religious or economic in nature, as such works would have been considered revolutionary and might encourage the Finnish majority to revolt against the church and crown. However, the censorship only fueledFinland's language strife and the Fennomanian movement.[19]
In 1848,several revolutions and uprisings broke out across Europe, inspired by the ideas ofliberalism,socialism, andnationalism. In France, theFebruary Revolution led to KingLouis-Philippe's abdication and the establishment of theSecond Republic. This was a significant overthrow of a monarchy. In many other countries, such as Germany, Austria, and Italy, revolutionary movements caused political upheavals, and rulers were forced to concede reforms. However, in Finland, no such movements occurred, and the situation remained calm.[12]
In Finland, a language decree was enacted in 1850, which meant censorship was tightened, and the activities of Finnish and Swedish newspapers were restricted. The decree was issued by the Governor-General of Finland, Alexander Menshikov. The decree was relaxed in 1854 and 1857 and completely repealed in 1860.[14]
Social pastime in a Finnish countryside cabin.
Nikolai I's reign had positive aspects such as Finland being able to settle peacefully into new conditions. Helsinki was built according to the plans of senator Ehrenström and architect Engel. New institutions like the Finnish Senate and theBank of Finland were able to establish themselves peacefully. Finland's business life was able to create new trade agreements with Russia and establish rules for international trade. TheFinnish nobility adapted to new officer and official positions in the empire. Finland could focus peacefully on social and economic development, with the understanding that Nikolai was negatively disposed towards the ideas of freedom and revolution. During this time, traditions inforeign relations were established on how Finns managed relations with the Russian rulers and Russia in general.[20][12]
EmperorAlexander II opened the Diet of Finland at theImperial Palace in Helsinki in 1863.Ball in Helsinki in honour of Alexander II in 1863.
TheCrimean War began in 1853. The war was focused on theBlack Sea, where Russia fought against theOttoman Empire. TheBritish Empire and theFrench Empire allied with the Ottoman Empire. The war expanded to theBaltic Sea. The British and French navies focused on bombarding the Finnish coast, where fortresses as well as trade and port cities were located. The bombings caused extensive damage to the Finnish economy and contributed to thefamine experienced in the following years, as the bombings destroyed merchant ships and grain stores.[14]
The works ofJohan Snellman and other Fennoman authors combined literature and nationalism and increased the calls for language recognition and education reforms in Finland. This heightened during theCrimean War in which Finnish ports and fortresses on theBaltic Sea became subject for Allied attacks, specificallySuomenlinna andBomarsund inÅland during theÅland War. As newspapers were printed in Swedish and Russian due to censorship, many Finns could not read about the events of theBattle of Bomarsund and theBattle of Suomenlinna. Moreover,Nicholas I died in 1855.[21]
The new emperor,Alexander II, had already planned educational reforms in outlying territories in Russia, including Finland.
Alexander II also planned to call on the Diet of the Estates in 1863. Under Alexander's rule, Finland experienced a period of liberalization in education, the arts, and the economy.
During the years 1809-1863, Finland was governed through decrees, meaning that existing laws could only be specified. However, new laws could not be added. Nicholas I did not want to convene the estates' diet because he did not want to face new demands from the diet members. The Finns were also not enthusiastic about gathering at the estates' diet, because the conservative tsar could have restricted Finland's autonomy. However, Alexander II realized during and after the Crimean War that Russia needed to reform. The condition for reform was to convene the estates' diet at regular intervals.[12][20]
Steam locomotive atHämeenlinna Railway Station in 1865.
The most impressive project was the construction of the railway line between Helsinki and Hämeenlinna. Thenew railway connection was opened on March 17 in 1862.Hämeenlinna had been a significant garrison town since Swedish times and continued these traditions during the Grand Duchy period. The primary purpose of the railway was the rapid transfer of troops from Hämeenlinna to Helsinki in case of war. The railway also accelerated Finland's economic development. The rail network was extended in the following decades to various Finnish cities. For Finnish trade, the opening of the railway between Helsinki and Saint Petersburg offered new opportunities.[14][12][22][23]
There was a certain uncertainty among Finns in the 19th century as to whether the Russian Tsar Alexander II would keep his promise to convene the Diet, since Finland enjoyed autonomy and special rights that neither Poland nor "proper" Russia had, which caused tensions and fears for the future. The background was precisely the situation inCongress Poland: in 1863 there was theJanuary Uprising, which made Russian authorities hostile to regional self-government rights. In Finland, there was concern that the unrest in Poland and the tightening Russian rule might lead to Finns also losing their privileges and autonomy - and that the Diet would no longer be convened. In Poland, the Russian army of 90,000 men were commanded by the Finnish‑born GeneralAnders Edvard Ramsay, whose forces suppressed the uprising.[24][25][26]
Emperor Alexander II visited Finland twice in 1863. During his first visit, he arrived in Helsinki by ship. From Helsinki, he traveled to Hämeenlinna by train. Alexander II inspected the Finnish military atParolannummi inHattula. At the same time, a carefully organised event attracted a crowd. SenatorJohan Vilhelm Snellman presented Alexander II with a decree that elevated the Finnish language to equal status with Swedish. Alexander II signed the decree at the Governor's Palace in Hämeenlinna on July 30, 1863. It was a historic milestone in the history ofFinnish nationalism. The decree included a 20-year transition period. The law was expanded in 1865 to require that state offices must serve the public in Finnish if requested. Despite this, the language laws took time to be fully implemented due to the interference of the Swedish elite, who owned most of these offices and businesses.[14][12][27]
Alexander's second visit occurred during the Finnish Diet in September 1863. BenefactorAurora Karamzin arranged grand festivities for the Tsar at the Träskända Manor inEspoo on September 16. Alexander gave the opening speech of the Diet at the Imperial Palace in Helsinki on September 18. TheHouse of Nobility in Helsinki, completed in 1862, was built specifically for the upcoming Diets. All estates gathered at the House of Nobility. In the evening, a grand ball was held in honor of the Tsar at the Helsinki railway station's banquet hall, which was the largest event space in Helsinki at that time.[14][12]
In 1863, Alexander called the Diet and passed laws regarding infrastructure and currency. Alexander came to favor the Finnish working class over the Swedish elite, due to Swedish propaganda during the Crimean War urging revolt against the Russians. Alexander. The education laws pushed through and the first secondary schools instructed in Finnish began in the 1870s.[28] The power of the Diet was also expanded in 1869, as it allowed the Diet more power and the ability to initiate various legislation; the act also called the tsar to call upon the Diet every five years. An act passed regarding religion was also passed in 1869 which prevented the power of the state over the church. Moreover, Finland also received its own monetary system, theFinnish markka, and itsown army.[27]
The establishment of the Finnish markka was a significant event because Swedishthalers and Russianrubles circulated in Finland's economy, which confused Finland's economy. A savings bank operated in Finland from 1822, but it was aimed only at poor consumers. Savings banks existed only in Turku and Helsinki, because the markets in those cities were large enough.
Financial legislation was created in Finland, enabling the establishment of commercial banks. The purpose of commercial banks was to finance companies and industry. At the same time, theMortgage Society was founded, focusing on agricultural financing.[12]
Between 1762 and 1864, 62limited companies were established in Finland, but there was no limited company law before that. A new limited liability law came into effect in 1864, which encouraged the establishment of new companies. Indeed, 1095 limited liability companies were founded in Finland between 1865 and 1896. For example,Stockmann was founded in 1862, but it only became a limited company in 1902."[29][12][30]
Alexander II approved the proposals of the Finnish estates' diet, which developed Finland's financial markets, trade, and industry.[12]
Alexander II died as a result of a terrorist attack in Saint Petersburg in 1881. The Finnish Diet convened in 1882 and decided to commemorate the late Tsar. A nationwide citizens' fundraising campaign was launched in Finland in 1884, collecting 240,000 marks from private individuals. In total, the campaign raised 280,000 marks. The Diet of 1884 resolved to erect a statue in the centre of Senate Square. The project received the approval of theHelsinki City Council. A design competition for the statue was organised, won byWalter Runeberg and Johannes Takanen.The statue was completed in 1894. The erection of the monument was a sign that Alexander II was a well-regarded Tsar, seen as favourable towards Finland's development.[12][34][35]
Alexander III came to power during the first half of theBelle Époque era. Finland's economy grew, trade expanded, and industrialisation advanced. The first luxury hotel in Finland,Kämp, was opened in 1887, which was a sign of Finland's growing prosperity. The Finnish railway network had been expanded under Alexander II, and it continued to be developed further under the new Tsar.[12]
Alexander III publicly confirmed Finland's constitutional position and allowed the Estates to convene in the Diet every three years. By the manifesto regarding the 1886 Diet Act, the Estates were granted the right of initiative, which increased their influence. Social improvements were also enacted, for example in easing the position of peasants throughland banks and purchase instalments.[14]
Alexander had a close relationship with Finland, as he became enchanted with the rapids and natural surroundings ofLanginkoski in 1880. He ordered an imperial fishing lodge to be built there in 1887. He spent summers at the Imperial Fishing Lodge in Langinkoski between 1889 and 1894. The Emperor enjoyed the tranquillity of theGulf of Finland and valued the loyalty of the Finns.[12]
Emperor Alexander III of Russia visited France in the autumn of 1893, following the signing of theFranco-Russian Alliance. His arrival at the French naval base inToulon marked a significant diplomatic event, reciprocating the French Navy's visit to the Russian port ofKronstadt in 1891. This exchange of visits symbolised the growing military and political cooperation between the two nations amidst the shifting alliances in Europe. The Russian squadron at Toulon was commanded by Finnish Rear AdmiralTeodor Avellan, who would later become Russia's Minister of the Navy and a member of the State Council, retiring with the rank of admiral. In recognition of the strengthened ties between Russia and France, thePont Alexandre III inParis was constructed in 1900, commemorating their alliance.[12][36]
The 1890 Mail Manifesto integrated Finland's postal system with that of Russia, placing it under the authority of the Russian Ministry of the Interior. This curtailed Finland's autonomy and laid the groundwork for later Russification measures as well as the first period of oppression. As a consequence of the manifesto, Finnish postage stamps were gradually replaced with Russian ones, sparking national resistance and growing opposition to Russian policy in Finland.[14]
Parade in Helsinki in the 1890s.
Russification measures had been initiated inUkraine,Belarus,Poland, and theBaltic provinces much earlier than in Finland. Russia's aim was to stabilise the unity of the Empire so that its border regions would not break away from it. However, Russification provoked a strong reaction, which in turn strengthenedFinnish nationalism in Finland.[14][37][12]
The Russification of Finland and the ensuing intense political confrontations were based on differing constitutional interpretations. The Finns maintained thatAlexander I had created a state out of Finland in 1809, which stood in areal union with Russia, and therefore Finland's autonomy could not be curtailed. The Russians, for their part, regarded Finland as a province directly under the Tsar's command. A profound legal dispute thus arose over the interpretation of the law.[14][37][12]
Alexander III died fromkidney disease at the age of 47, his death occurring with unexpected suddenness.
His sonNicholas II acceded to the imperial throne at the age of 26, having received insufficient preparation for the responsibilities of autocratic rule. Nicholas II was regarded as a devout and reactionary sovereign, frequently characterised as inexperienced and weak, and lacking a coherent or consistent political direction.[38]
In Finland, society had advanced into the mid‑period of theBelle Époque. The nation's economy continued to expand vigorously, while its cultural life entered into a phase of marked flourishing and refinement.[12]
In 1809, Finland remained one of the poorest regions in Europe. This situation was in part the result of Swedish policies, as the authorities inStockholm had repeatedly hindered the establishment of factories, despite the availability of private capital among Finns for such enterprises. The Swedish industrial fund also provided support to Finnish companies only in rare cases. At the same time, Finland was drawn into the conflicts between Sweden and Russia and served as a theatre of war.[12]
By the reign of Nicholas II, Finland's standard of living had risen to align with the European average. The main export markets were Britain and Russia, while Germany grew in importance as a destination for Finnish goods. TheHelsinki Stock Exchange and theHelsinki Bourse Club were founded in 1910 by Finnish investors.[12][39]
Helsinki in 1899.
Nicholas II made frequent visits to Finland aboard theimperial yachtStandart. The Finnish coast, particularly the shores of the Gulf of Finland, offered him an opportunity to spend time in the company of his family while enjoying respite from the political pressures and intrigues of the court in Saint Petersburg. Finland thus served as both a retreat and a place of personal attachment for the emperor during his reign.[12]
The reign of Nicholas II in Finland is chiefly remembered for the periods of oppression (sortokaudet), during which Russian authorities sought to curtail the autonomy of the Grand Duchy. The first period of oppression occurred between 1899 and 1905, beginning with efforts to integrate Finland more fully into the Russian Empire and to diminish its traditional rights.[14]
In 1905, a women's protest march, possibly in support ofsuffrage.
Russia's defeat in theRusso‑Japanese War (1904–1905) sparked widespread demonstrations across the empire, including in Finland. These upheavals culminated in theRevolution of 1905, which opened the way forconstitutional reform. A proposal was made to allow the Grand Duchy of Finland to establish a modern parliamentary system.[14]
In 1906, the Diet of the Estates - Finland's traditional four‑chamber legislature - accepted the plan and voted for its own dissolution. The Finnish nobility endorsed the reform by 100 votes to 8. The following year, in 1907, the unicameralParliament of Finland (Eduskunta) was established, introducing a party system and the practice of parliamentary elections.[14][40]
In 1906, Finnish women were granted fullsuffrage rights, both the right to vote and to stand for election. This made Finland the first country in Europe to grant women such political rights, placing it at the forefront ofdemocratic reform in the early 20th century.[14]
Russia and France concluded theFranco-Russian alliance in 1892. TheEntente Cordiale between France and Britain was formed in 1904. In 1907, Russia became a member of theTriple Entente. At that time Finland did not conduct its own foreign policy, but instead adhered to the policies of Russia.[12]
The second period of oppression in Finland began in 1908, following the appointment ofPyotr Stolypin as Prime Minister of Russia. Stolypin transferred Finnish affairs to the jurisdiction of the Russian Council of Ministers, thereby stripping authority from the Finnish Parliament, the Senate of Finland, and the Finnish Minister‑Secretary of State. He also sought to detach the parishes ofKivennapa andUusikirkko, located in theViipuri Province, and annex them to the Governorate of Saint Petersburg. Stolypin was assassinated at the opera house inKyiv in 1911, which left this plan unrealised.[41][42]
Despite the outbreak of theFirst World War, Nicholas II continued the policy of Russification in Finland. His aim was to transform the country into a Russian province.[14]
Nicholas II's policies in Finland united the political spectrum in a common effort to defend Finnish interests. His rule also gave rise to theJäger Movement, and Nicholas II became regarded as the most unpopular tsar in Finnish history. Only among industrial circles did he retain support, as businesses profited from access to the markets of the Russian Empire and from the wartime economy during the First World War.[14]
It has often been observed that Finns endured the years of oppression in part because Finland's economic prosperity was increasing and cultural life continued to flourish.[39][37]
The years of oppression came to an end with theRussian Revolution of 1917 and the abdication of Nicholas II. Finland declared itself independent after the collapse of the empire.[14][38]
The period of the Grand Duchy of Finland lasted for 108 years. It was a long era of stability, including only one war on Finnish soil, the Crimean War in Åland, even though the Russian Empire fought in other regions. By contrast, during the time of the Swedish kingdom, Finland was regularly drawn into wars against Russia, which increased negative attitudes toward Stockholm's policies.[14]
The idea of an independent Finland arose among theFinnish nobility and officer corps in the 1780s, as opposition grew against the autocratic policies of KingGustav III. The independence of theUnited States from theBritish Empire served as an inspiration for an independent Finland.[12]
The Finnish Literature Society in Helsinki.
The era of the Grand Duchy of Finland made possible the establishment and development of national institutions. More cities were founded in Finland. Tax revenues remained in the country, which improved its economic situation. Companies and factories could be established with greater freedom. The Saimaa Canal and the railway network were constructed. Finnish enterprises gained access to the vast Russian markets. Finland's western exports expanded, with Britain being the largest market. Agriculture and forestry developed and expanded. Associational activity became more lively. The Finnish language was elevated to equal status alongside Swedish. Science, art, and culture flourished in a favourable environment. Finland's literacy rate rose to the highest level in the empire.[12][14]
Finns served as members of the Russian State Council, as ministers, high-ranking officials, generals, and admirals. Successful Finnish merchants and industrialists operated in the Russian markets.[12]
The most significant tension arose from Finland's autonomous status and the interpretation of law. This phase too began only during the reign of the last tsars, who sought to unify the empire linguistically and culturally, but in doing so provoked considerable backlash across the empire. The era of the Grand Duchy was a period of development in Finland. Finland is the only part of the former Russian Empire that did not fall undercommunism in the 20th century.[14]
At that time Finland did not have its own foreign policy, as it followed the general foreign policy of the empire. Instead, during the era of the Grand Duchy, the foundation was laid for Finland's long-standing Eastern policy.[12]
The policies ofRussification underAlexander III andNicholas II easily sum up the time period from 1881 to 1917. In 1881, Alexander III took the throne after the death of his father and began a period of staunchly conservative, yet peaceful, rule of Russia. Finland, as well as many other outlying Russian territories, faced the burden of Russification, the cultural, social, economical, and political absorption into Russia. Compared to the early Russification of the 1830s and 1840s, the Russification of the late 19th-early 20th century was much more vigorous in its policies. Moreover, Finland faced political turmoil within its nation between various factions such as liberals, Social Democrats, Young Finns, and communists. Finland became a target for thePan-Slavist movement, which called forSlavic unity in eastern Europe. Finland was viewed as conquered territory, and that as subjects, Finland was to respect the tsar. Finland was also viewed as a land of settlement and that the "alien race" of the Finns were to be assimilated and protected from Western interference, thereby "blessing" the Finns with their presence. Moreover, Finnish representatives to the tsar were replaced with Pan-Slavist advocates.[43]
Russification only increased from there, but from the 1880s on, the conflict between the Swedish minority halted. Compared to theBaltic States, the Finnish majority was far better educated and more keen in Russian politics. The reactionary policies of Russification, which aimed to combine secular nationalism and a divine right monarchy, infiltrated the Finnish economy in 1885. Finland had managed to create a thriving modern industry based around textiles and timber that managed to rival the Russian economy at the time. Russian bureaucrats, out of both shock and jealousy, called for the revision of theRusso-Finnish Tariff. Russification had taken an economic turn as well, as the basis of the reformed tariff was economic uniformity, which only furthered economic difficulties of Finland. The tariff's revision in 1885, and subsequently 1897, was formed out of spite of Finland's commercial success and working-class unity. Russification policies continued into 1890, with the addition of the Imperial Post System in Finland, replacing the Finnish post. It was not until the mid-1890s, that the Finnish people realized the true intentions of the Russian crown.[citation needed]
Governor-General of Finland Nikolay Bobrikov.
Nicholas II ascended the throne in 1894 after Alexander's death, and with him came GeneralNikolay Bobrikov, who was appointed governor-general. Under Bobrikov, the Finns had a near collective hatred of him, whose reactionary policies gave rise to socialism and communism among the Finnish working class. TheParty of Active Resistance [fi] andKagal, in particular, became very popular in Finland for the former's tactics of violence and the latter's tactic of propaganda and persuasion. At the beginning of this reign, Bobrikov almost immediately introduced a mandatory five-year military service, in which Finns had the possibility of being drafted into Russian units. Furthermore, he instituted that Russians be given the opportunity to serve in public office and that Russian be made the administrative language of Finland. In 1899, theFebruary Manifesto under Nicholas II declared that Russian law was the law of the land, and Finland was to pledge allegiance to Russian law. The Diet was essentially downgraded to a state assembly and that Finland was a province of Russia, ignoring its autonomy. The Finnish Army as a whole was dissolved in 1901.[44]
Bobrikov unintentionally united both Finns and Swedes against Russia, which only angered him more. With churches refusing to proclaim the law, judges refusing to carry it out, and conscripts refusing service, Bobrikov went on a frenzy with the current state of Finland. Bobrikov found little support in Finland, mainly from the Russian minority and members of theOld Finnish Party. Bobrikov brought in Russian officials to take government and state spots and, in an extreme act of anger, suspended theFinnish Constitution in 1903. His actions were met with extreme anger from Finns and Swedes, in which the moderate parties, theYoung Finns and theSwedish Party combined to collectively fight Bobrikov. TheSocial Democratic Party of Finland, a left-wing party popular among peasants was also extremely hostile and advocated armed resistance. Finally, the Party of Active Resistance, a nationalist party that advocated an armed struggle and guerilla tactics, received fame when memberEugen Schaumanassassinated Bobrikov inHelsinki on 16 June 1904.[46]
General strike in Helsinki in 1905.Helsinki in 1907The first session of theParliament of Finland in 1907
In 1905, Russia faced a humiliating defeat in theRusso-Japanese War and amidst the turmoil inSt. Petersburg, Finns remade their constitution and formed a newparliament whose representation was based onuniversal suffrage, giving women fullsuffrage before any other European nation after the short-livedRepublic of Corsica. However, the parliament was quickly destroyed byPyotr Stolypin, Nicholas II's prime minister. Stolypin proved to be even more vigorous than Bobrikov, as he believed every subject should be a stoic patriot to the crown and uphold undying loyalty to Russia. Stolypin wished todestroy Finland's autonomy and disregarded native tongues and cultures of non-Russian subjects, believing them to be traditional and ritualistic at best. The Finnish parliament once again formed to combat Stolypin, but Stolypin was bent on quashing Finnish insurrection and permanently disbanded the parliament in 1909. As with Bobrikov before him, Stolypin was unaware that such actions only fanned the flames and was subsequently assassinated byDmitry Bogrov, a Jewish member of the far-left. From Stolypin's death henceforward, the Russian crown ruled Finland as a monarchist dictatorship until Russia's collapse during theRussian Revolution, from whichFinland declared independence, a war of independence that soon transformed into acivil war.[47]
The Russian emperor ruled as the Grand Duke of Finland and was represented in Finland by theGovernor-General. TheSenate of Finland was the highest governing body of the Grand Duchy and was composed of native Finns. InSt. Petersburg Finnish matters were represented by theMinister–Secretary of State for Finland. The Senate had a primarily advisory role until it got the right to representation in 1886. On top of having its own central, regional and local administration, Finland had its own stamps,currency and army.
Alexander I did not want the Grand Duchy to be aconstitutional monarchy but the governmental institutions born during the Swedish rule offered him a more efficient form of government than theabsolute monarchy inRussia. This evolved into a high level of autonomy by the end of the 19th century.
Map of Finland, about 1900. The map is in Russian and uses the Swedish place names written in Cyrillic.Provinces of the Grand Duchy of Finland
The administrative division of the Grand Duchy followed the Russian imperial model with provinces (Russian:губернияgovernorate,Swedish:län,Finnish:lääni) headed by governors. Few changes were made however, and as the language of the administrators was stillSwedish the old terminology from the Swedish time continued in local use. TheViipuri Province was not initially part of the Grand Duchy, but in 1812 it was transferred by TsarAlexander I from Russia proper to Finland. After 1831 there were eight provinces in the Grand Duchy until the end and that continued in the independent Finland:
The Grand Duchy of Finland had no officialflag of its own, but different types of flags were used in different occasions. An official flag was debated even in theDiet of Finland in the 1860s, but one was never officially chosen.[50] Theflag of Russia was Finland's official flag until independence.[51]
An official maritime flag was chosen in 1812 for governmental use. It was a white flag, with theRussian flag in the upper corner and acompass rose in the middle. In 1883 it was replaced with a blue cross flag with the compass rose in the upper corner. A post flag (a white flag with the Russian flag in the upper corner and apost horn in the middle) was also used in the Grand Duchy, along with a customs flag (a blue flag, with the Russian flag on the upper corner and the logo of the customs agency in the middle).
Originally, there were no regulations regarding merchant flags until 3 October 1821, when Finnish ships were given the right to fly the Russian flag without permission. White, blue and red flags with the Russian flag in the corner were also used. Later on six and nine-striped flags with the colors of the Russian flag twice or thrice saw some use.[52]
At the end of the 19th century, flags with thecoat of arms were used in unofficial contexts such as private estates and protests. In official contexts, the Russian white-blue-redtricolour was primarily used.[54]
The Grand Duchy of Finland participated in the1912 Summer Olympics with their own team. In the opening ceremony, the Finnish team marched behind the Russian team with a Finland-sign. In the medal ceremonies, the Russian flag above a white-blue pennant reading "Finland" was raised for the Finnish athletes.[55]
^Sole "language of administration" following the 1899February Manifesto, which was de facto suspended and partially reversed following the1905 Revolution.
^Teorell, Jan; Rothstein, Bo (2015-09-01). "Getting to Sweden, Part I: War and Malfeasance, 1720–1850".Scandinavian Political Studies.
^Rothstein, Bo; Teorell, Jan (2015-09-01). "Getting to Sweden, Part II: Breaking with Corruption in the Nineteenth Century".Scandinavian Political Studies.
^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeJussila, Osmo (2004).Suomen suuriruhtinaskunta 1809-1917 [The Grand Duchy of Finland 1809-1917] (in Finnish). WSOY.
^Historia ajassa 3: Itsenäisen Suomen historia, s. 23–25. Helsinki: Sanoma Pro Oy, 2016.
^Historia ajassa 3: Itsenäisen Suomen historia, s. 23–25. Helsinki: Sanoma Pro Oy, 2016.
^abKalleinen, Kristiina (2023).Valtioaamun aika - Suomen suuriruhtinaskunta 1809–1863 [The Era of the State Dawn - The Grand Duchy of Finland 1809–1863] (in Finnish). Gaudeamus.
Mäkinen, Ilkka. (Winter 2015), "From Literacy to Love of Reading: The Fennomanian Ideology of Reading in the 19th-Century Finland",Journal of Social History, vol. 49, no. 2.
Alenius, Kari. "Russification in Estonia and Finland Before 1917",Faravid, 2004, Vol. 28, pp. 181–194Online
Huxley, Steven.Constitutionalist insurgency in Finland: Finnish "passive resistance" against Russification as a case of nonmilitary struggle in the European resistance tradition (1990)
Kan, Aleksander. "Storfurstendömet Finland 1809–1917 – dess autonomi enligt den nutida finska historieskrivningen" (in Swedish) ["Autonomous Finland 1809–1917 in contemporary Finnish historiography"]Historisk Tidskrift, 2008, Issue 1, pp. 3–27
Polvinen, Tuomo.Imperial Borderland: Bobrikov and the Attempted Russification of Finland, 1898–1904 (1995)Duke University Press. 342 pp.
Thaden, Edward C.Russification in the Baltic Provinces and Finland (1981).JSTOR
¹Italics indicates renamed or abolished governorates, oblasts, etc on 1 January 1914. ² An asterisk (+) indicates governorates formed or created with renaming after 1 January 1914. ³Ostsee or Baltic general-governorship was abolished in 1876.
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