Gothic art was a style ofmedieval art that developed in Northern France out ofRomanesque art in the 12th century, led by the concurrent development ofGothic architecture. It spread to all ofWestern Europe, and much ofNorthern,Southern andCentral Europe, never quite effacing more classical styles in Italy. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style ofInternational Gothic developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century. In many areas, especially Germany, Late Gothic art continued well into the 16th century, before being subsumed intoRenaissance art. Primary media in the Gothic period includedsculpture,panel painting,stained glass,fresco andilluminated manuscripts. The easily recognisable shifts in architecture from Romanesque to Gothic, and Gothic to Renaissance styles, are typically used to define the periods in art in all media, although in many ways figurative art developed at a different pace.
The earliest Gothic art wasmonumental sculpture, on the walls of Cathedrals and abbeys. Christian art was oftentypological in nature (seeMedieval allegory), showing the stories of the New Testament and the Old Testament side by side. Saints' lives were often depicted. Images of theVirgin Mary changed from the Byzantine iconic form to a more human and affectionate mother, cuddling her infant, swaying from her hip, and showing the refined manners of a well-born aristocratic courtly lady.
Secular art came into its own during this period with the rise of cities,foundation of universities, increase in trade, the establishment of a money-based economy and the creation of abourgeois class who could afford to patronise the arts and commission works, resulting in a proliferation of paintings and illuminated manuscripts. Increased literacy and a growing body ofsecular vernacular literature encouraged the representation of secular themes in art. With the growth of cities, tradeguilds were formed and artists were often required to be members of apainters' guild. As a result, because of better record keeping, more artists are known to us by name in this period than any previous; some artists were even so bold as to sign their names.
Gothic art emerged inÎle-de-France, France,[1]in the early 12th century, at theAbbey Church of St Denis built byAbbot Suger.[2]Thomas O'Hagan speculates on Lombard, Frankish and Norse influences feeding into Gothic.[3]Wilhelm Worringer'sForm in the Gothic (German:Formprobleme der Gotik, 1911) traces the psychological roots of the style back into the past at least as far as theMigration period.[4]
The style rapidly spread beyond its early manifestations in architecture to sculpture (bothmonumental and personal in size), to textile art, and to painting, which took a variety of forms, includingfresco,stained glass, theilluminated manuscript, andpanel painting.[5]Monastic orders, especially theCistercians and theCarthusians, commissioned many important ecclesiastical buildings, disseminating the style and developing distinctive variants of it across Europe.Regional variations of architecture remained important, even when, by the late-14th century, a coherent universal style — whichLouis Courajod (1841–1896) dubbed "International Gothic" — had evolved, which continued until the late-15th century (and beyond in many areas).
Although artists of the Gothic period produced far more secular works than are often known today, generally the survival rate of religious art has been better than for secular equivalents, and a large proportion of the art from the period was religious, whether commissioned by the church or by the laity.Gothic art was oftentypological in nature, reflecting a belief that the events of theOld Testament pre-figured those of theNew, and that this was indeed their main significance. Old and New Testament scenes appeared side-by-side in works like theSpeculum Humanae Salvationis of the early-14th century, and in the decoration of churches. The Gothic period coincided with a great resurgence inMarian devotion, in which the visual arts played a major part. Images of theVirgin Mary developed from the Byzantine hieratic types, through theCoronation of the Virgin, to more human and intimate types, and cycles of theLife of the Virgin were very popular. Artists likeGiotto (c. 1267 – 1337),Fra Angelico (c. 1395 – 1455) andPietro Lorenzetti (c. 1280 – 1348) in Italy, andEarly Netherlandish painting, all brought realism and more natural humanity to art. Western European artists, and their patrons, became much more confident in innovativeiconography, and much more originality developed, although most artists still followed copied formulae.[citation needed]
Iconography was affected by changes in theology, with depictions of theAssumption of Mary gaining ground on the olderDeath of the Virgin theme, and in devotional practices such as theDevotio Moderna, which produced new treatments of Christ in subjects such as theMan of Sorrows,Pensive Christ andPietà, which emphasised his human suffering and vulnerability, in a parallel movement to that in depictions of the Virgin. Even inLast Judgements Christ was now usually shown exposing his chest to show the wounds of hisPassion. Saints appeared more frequently, andaltarpieces showed saints relevant to the particular church or donor in attendance on aCrucifixion or on an enthronedVirgin and Child, or occupying the central space themselves (this usually for works designed for side-chapels). During the Gothic period many ancient iconographical features that originated inNew Testament apocrypha — like themidwives at the Nativity — were gradually eliminated under clerical pressure, though others had become too well-established, and were considered harmless.[6]
The word "Gothic" for art was initially used as a synonym for "Barbaric", and was therefore used pejoratively.[7] Its critics saw this type of Medieval art as unrefined and too remote from the aesthetic proportions and shapes ofClassical art.[8]Renaissance authors believed that theSack of Rome by theGothic tribes in 410 had triggered the demise of the Classical world and all the values they held dear. In the 15th century, various Italian architects and writers complained that the new "barbarian" styles filtering down from north of the Alps posed a similar threat to the classical revival promoted by the early Renaissance.[9]
The "Gothic" qualifier for this art movement was first used inRaphael's letter toPope Leo Xc. 1518 and was subsequently popularised by the Italian artist and writerGiorgio Vasari,[10] who used it as early as 1530, calling Gothic art a "monstrous and barbarous" "disorder".[11] Raphael claimed that the pointed arches of northern architecture were an echo of the primitive huts the Germanic forest dwellers formed by bending trees together – a myth which would resurface much later in a more positive sense in the writings of the GermanRomantic movement. "Gothic art" was strongly criticised by French authors such asBoileau,La Bruyère,Rousseau, before becoming a recognised form of art, and the wording becoming fixed.[8]Molière would famously comment on Gothic:
The besotted taste of Gothic monuments, These odious monsters of ignorant centuries, Which the torrents of barbary spewed forth.[8]
In its beginning, Gothic art was initially called "French work" (Opus Francigenum), thus attesting to the priority of France in the creation of this style.[8][failed verification]
Painting in the Gothic style did not exist until around 1200, over 50 years after the beginnings of Gothic architecture and sculpture. The transition from Romanesque to Gothic is very imprecise and not at all a clear break, and Gothic ornamental detailing is often introduced before much change is seen in the style of figures or compositions themselves. Then figures become more animated in pose and facial expression, tend to be smaller in relation to the background of scenes, and are arranged more freely in the pictorial space, where there is room. This transition occurs first in England and France around 1200, in Germany around 1220 and Italy around 1300. Painting during the Gothic period was practiced in four primary media:frescos,panel paintings,manuscript illumination andstained glass.[citation needed]
Frescos continued to be used as the main pictorial narrative craft on church walls in southern Europe as a continuation of early Christian and Romanesque traditions. An accident of survivalhas given Denmark andSweden the largest groups of surviving church wall paintings in theBiblia pauperum style, usually extending up to recently constructedcross vaults. In both Denmark and Sweden, they were almost all covered with limewash after theReformation which has preserved them, but some have also remained untouched since their creation. Among the finest examples from Denmark are those of theElmelunde Master from the Danish island ofMøn who decorated the churches ofFanefjord,Keldby andElmelunde.[12]Albertus Pictor is arguably the most well-known fresco artist from the period working in Sweden. Examples of Swedish churches with well-preserved frescos includeTensta,Gökhem andAnga churches.[citation needed]
Part of Germanstained glass panel of 1444 with theVisitation; pot metal of various colours, including white glass, black vitreous paint, yellow silver stain, and the "olive-green" parts are enamel. The plant patterns in the red sky are formed by scratching away black paint from the red glass before firing. A restored panel with new lead cames
In northern Europe,stained glass was an important and prestigious form of painting until the 15th century, when it became supplanted bypanel painting. Gothic architecture greatly increased the amount of glass in large buildings, partly to allow for wide expanses of glass, as inrose windows. In the early part of the period mainly black paint and clear or brightly coloured glass was used, but in the early 14th century the use of compounds of silver, painted on glass which was then fired, allowed a number of variations of colour, centred on yellows, to be used with clear glass in a single piece. By the end of the period designs increasingly used large pieces of glass which were painted, with yellows as the dominant colours, and relatively few smaller pieces of glass in other colours.[13]
Illuminated manuscripts represent the most complete record of Gothic painting, providing a record of styles in places where no monumental works have otherwise survived. The earliest full manuscripts with French Gothic illustrations date to the middle of the 13th century.[14] Many such illuminated manuscripts were royal bibles, althoughpsalters also included illustrations; the ParisianPsalter of Saint Louis, dating from 1253 to 1270, features 78 full-page illuminations intempera paint and gold leaf.[15]
During the late 13th century, scribes began to create prayer books for the laity, often known asbooks of hours due to their use at prescribed times of the day.[15] Among the earliest is an example byWilliam de Brailes that seems to have been written for an unknown laywoman living in asmall village nearOxford in about 1240. Nobility frequently purchased such texts, paying handsomely for decorative illustrations; among the most well-known creators of these isJean Pucelle, whoseHours of Jeanne d'Evreux was commissioned by KingCharles IV as a gift for his queen,Jeanne d'Évreux.[16] Elements of the French Gothic present in such works include the use of decorative page framing reminiscent of the architecture of the time with elongated and detailed figures.[15] The use of spatial indicators such as building elements and natural features such as trees and clouds also denote the French Gothic style of illumination.[15]
From the middle of the 14th century,blockbooks with both text and images cut as woodcut seem to have been affordable byparish priests in theLow Countries, where they were most popular. By the end of the century, printed books with illustrations, still mostly on religious subjects, were rapidly becoming accessible to the prosperous middle class, as wereengravings of fairly high quality byprintmakers likeIsrahel van Meckenem andMaster E. S. In the 15th century, the introduction of cheapprints, mostly inwoodcut, made it possible even for peasants to have devotional images at home. These images, tiny at the bottom of the market, often crudely coloured, were sold in thousands but are now extremely rare, most having been pasted to walls.[citation needed]
Painting with oil on canvas did not become popular until the 15th and 16th centuries and was a hallmark ofRenaissance art. In Northern Europe the important and innovative school ofEarly Netherlandish painting is in an essentially Gothic style, but can also be regarded as part of theNorthern Renaissance, as there was a long delay before the Italian revival of interest inclassicism had a great impact in the north. Painters likeRobert Campin andJan van Eyck made use of the technique ofoil painting to create minutely detailed works, correct in perspective, where apparent realism was combined with richly complex symbolism arising precisely from the realistic detail they could now include, even in small works. In Early Netherlandish painting, from the richest cities of Northern Europe, a new minute realism inoil painting was combined with subtle and complex theological allusions, expressed precisely through the highly detailed settings of religious scenes. TheMérode Altarpiece (1420s) ofRobert Campin and theWashington Van Eyck Annunciation orMadonna of Chancellor Rolin (both 1430s, byJan van Eyck) are examples.[17] For the wealthy, smallpanel paintings, evenpolyptychs inoil painting were becoming increasingly popular, often showingdonor portraits alongside, though often much smaller than the Virgin or saints depicted. These were usually displayed in the home.[citation needed]
The Gothic period is essentially defined byGothic architecture, and does not entirely fit with the development of style in sculpture in either its start or finish. The facades of large churches, especially around doors, continued to have large tympanums, but also rows of sculpted figures spreading around them.
Another revival of classical style is seen in theInternational Gothic work ofClaus Sluter and his followers inBurgundy andFlanders around 1400.[21] Late Gothic sculpture continued in the North, with a fashion for very large, wooden, sculpted altarpieces with increasingly virtuoso carving and large numbers agitated expressive figures. Later works inlimewood, specific to theUpper Rhine andBavaria in southern Germany, executed by the huge workshop ofTilman Riemenschneider or byVeit Stoss were oftentimes without anypolychromy. The style was continued well into the 16th century, gradually absorbing Italian Renaissance influences, with most surviving examples still in their original location, after much iconoclasm elsewhere.[22]
Life-size tomb effigies in stone oralabaster became popular for the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved, with theScaliger Tombs ofVerona so large they had to be moved outside the church. By the 15th century there was an industry exportingNottingham alabaster altar reliefs in groups of panels over much of Europe for economical parishes who could not afford stone retables.[23]
Lid of theWalters Casket, with theSiege of the Castle of Love at left, andjousting. Paris, 1330–1350
Small carvings, for a mainly lay and often female market, became a considerable industry in Paris and some other centres. Types of ivories included small, devotionalpolyptychs,single figures, especially of the Virgin, mirror-cases, combs, andelaborate caskets with scenes from Romances, used as engagement presents.[24] The very wealthy collected extravagantly elaborate, jewelled and enamelled metalwork, both secular and religious, like theDuc de Berry'sHoly Thorn Reliquary, until they ran short of money, when they were melted down again for cash.[25]
Ivory diptych, with some of the coloured paint remaining.Adoration of the Magi andCrucifixion.Meuse valley, France,c. 1350
Gothic sculptures independent of architectural ornament were primarily created as devotional objects for the home or intended as donations for local churches,[26] although smallreliefs inivory, bone and wood cover both religious and secular subjects, and were for church and domestic use. These sculptures were created by urban artisans, and the most common theme for three-dimensional small statues is the Virgin Mary alone or with a child.[27] Paris was the main centre of ivory workshops, and exported to most of northern Europe, though Italy also had a considerable production. An exemplar of these independent sculptures is among the collections of the Abbey Church of St Denis; the silver-giltVirgin and Child dates to 1339 and features Mary enveloped in a flowing cloak holding an infantile Christ figure.[27] Both the simplicity of the cloak and the youth of the child presage other sculptures found in northern Europe dating to the 14th century and early 15th century.[27] Such sculpture shows an evolution from an earlier stiff and elongated style, still partly Romanesque, into a spatial and naturalistic feel in the late 12th and early 13th century.[27] Other French Gothic sculptural subjects included figures and scenes from popular literature of the time.[27] Imagery from the poetry of thetroubadours was particularly popular among artisans of mirror-cases and small boxes presumably for use by women.[27] TheCasket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264) of 1330–50 is an unusually large example with space for a number of scenes from different literary sources.
Souvenirs of pilgrimages to shrines, such as clay or leadbadges, medals andampullae stamped with images were also popular and cheap. Their secular equivalent, thelivery badge, showed signs of feudal and political loyalty or alliance that came to be regarded as a social menace in England underbastard feudalism. The cheaper forms were sometimes given away free, as with the 13,000 badges ordered in 1483 by KingRichard III of England infustian cloth with his emblem of awhite boar for the investiture of his sonEdward as Prince of Wales,[28] a huge number given the population at the time. TheDunstable Swan Jewel, modelled fully in the round in enamelled gold, is a far more exclusive version, that would have been given to someone very close or important to the donor.
^Espagne, Michel (3 March 2016) [2015]. "Cultural Transfers in Art History". In Kaufmann, Thomas DaCosta; Dossin, Catherine; Joyeux-Prunel, Béatrice (eds.).Circulations in the Global History of Art. Studies in Art Historiography (reprint ed.). London: Routledge. p. 107.ISBN9781317166153. Retrieved26 May 2025.In the ambient nationalism of the late nineteenth century, the question of the origins of Gothic art was fundamental.Vöge [...] sought to show that French monumental sculpture, which took up in the Ile de France models elaborated in Arles or Moissac, had nothing Germanic about it, but was on the contrary the expression of a French movement in art history.
^O'Hagan, Thomas (1924).With Staff and Scrip. Toronto: Ryerson Press. p. 59. Retrieved26 May 2025.There were many agencies that contributed to the creation of Gothic art. The physical vitality of the new art epoch was derived from the blood of Lombards, Franks and Norsemen.
^Worringer, Wilhelm (1927) [1911]. "The Latent Gothic in Early Northern Ornament". InRead, Herbert Edward (ed.).Form in Gothic. Fine art library. Translated byRead, Herbert Edward (5 ed.). London: Putnam. pp. 38–39. Retrieved10 August 2025.[...] when the psychologist of style [...] has once grasped the basic character of the Gothic will to form, he can detect this will to form as being active underground, as it were, even where, obstructed by more powerful conditions and hindered in its free expansion, it assumes a foreign disguise. He recognizes that this Gothic will to form dominates, not externally, but internally, Romanesque art, Merovingian art, and the art of the Migration period, in short the whole course of Northern and Central European art. [...] the art of the entire Western world, in so far as it had no direct share in antique Mediterranean culture, was in its inmost essence Gothic and remained so until the Renaissance [...].
^Émile Mâle,The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century, pp. 165–8, English trans of 3rd edn, 1913, Collins, London (and many other editions) — a classic work on French Gothic church art.
^"Gothic art".Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved22 June 2017.
^E. S. de Beer,Gothic: Origin and Diffusion of the Term; The Idea of Style in Architecture inJournal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol.11, 1948, pp. 143–62
^Lane, Barbara G,The Altar and the Altarpiece, Sacramental Themes in Early Netherlandish Painting, Harper & Row, 1984,ISBN0-06-430133-8 analyses all these works in detail. See also the references in the articles on the works.
^Honour and Fleming, 297–300; Henderson, 55, 82–84
Hugh Honour and John Fleming,A World History of Art, 1st edn. 1982 (many later editions), Macmillan, London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback.ISBN0333371852
Rudolph, Conrad, "Inventing the Gothic Portal: Suger, Hugh of Saint Victor, and the Construction of a New Public Art at Saint-Denis",Art History 33 (2010) 568–595
Rudolph, Conrad, "Inventing the Exegetical Stained-Glass Window: Suger, Hugh, and a New Elite Art",Art Bulletin 93 (2011) 399–422
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