Thegolden age ofAmerican animation was a period that began with the popularization ofsound synchronizedcartoons in 1928 starting withSteamboat Willie, and gradually ended throughout the 1960s when theatrical animated cartoon film shorts started to lose popularity to the newer medium of television. Animated media from after the golden age,especially on television, were produced on cheaper budgets and with morelimited techniques starting in the late 1950s.^[1]

Multiple highly popular animated cartoon characters emerged from this period, including:

• Walt Disney'sMickey Mouse,Minnie Mouse,Donald Duck,Daisy Duck,Goofy,Pluto, andPete
• Fleischer Studios'Popeye,Betty Boop,Bimbo,Koko the Clown, andSuperman
• Warner Bros.'Bugs Bunny,Daffy Duck,Porky Pig,Elmer Fudd,Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner,Tweety,Sylvester,Yosemite Sam,Marvin the Martian,Tasmanian Devil,Foghorn Leghorn,Pepé Le Pew, andSpeedy Gonzales
• MGM'sTom and Jerry,Droopy,Barney Bear,George and Junior, andScrewy Squirrel
• Walter Lantz'sWoody Woodpecker,Andy Panda, andChilly Willy
• Van Beuren Studios'Felix the Cat
• Famous Studios'Casper the Friendly Ghost,Herman and Katnip,Little Lulu, andBaby Huey
• Screen Gems'the Fox and the Crow
• Terrytoons'Mighty Mouse,Heckle and Jeckle,Gandy Goose, andDinky Duck
• UPA'sMr. Magoo andGerald McBoing-Boing
• Hanna-Barbera'sLoopy De Loop
• DePatie–Freleng Enterprises'The Pink Panther,The Inspector, andThe Ant and the Aardvark

Over the course of these four decades, the quality of the media released throughout the golden age has often been debated. The peak of this era is usually cited as during the 1930s and 1940s, attributed to the theatrical run of studios includingWalt Disney Animation Studios,Warner Bros. Cartoons,Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Cartoons,Paramount Cartoon Studios,Walter Lantz Productions,Terrytoons, andFleischer Studios. In later decades, namely between the 1950s and 1960s, the era is sometimes divided into a "silver age" due to the emergence of studios such asUPA,DePatie–Freleng Enterprises,Hanna-Barbera Cartoons, andJay Ward Productions; these companies' presence in the industry grew significantly with the rise of television following the golden age's conclusion.^[2][3] Furthermore, thehistory of animation became very important artistically in theUnited States.^[4]

Feature-length animation began during this period, most notably with Disney's "Walt-era" films,^[5][6] spanning from 1937'sSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs and 1940'sPinocchio to 1967'sThe Jungle Book and 1970'sThe Aristocats (last animated films produced beforeWalt Disney's death in 1966).^[7][2] During this period, several live-action films incorporated animation, such asSaludos Amigos (1942),Anchors Aweigh (1945),Song of the South (1946),Dangerous When Wet (1953),Mary Poppins (1964) andBedknobs and Broomsticks (1971).^[8][9] In addition,stop motion andspecial effects were also developed, with films such asKing Kong (1933),The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953),The War of the Worlds (1953),Hansel and Gretel: An Opera Fantasy (1954),20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954),Forbidden Planet (1956),The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958),Jason and the Argonauts (1963) and2001: A Space Odyssey (1968).^[10]

Animation also began on television during this period withCrusader Rabbit (the first animated series broadcast in1948) and early versions ofRocky and Bullwinkle (1959), both from Jay Ward Productions.^[11] The rise of television animation is often considered to be a factor that hastened the golden age's end.^[1] However, various authors include Hanna-Barbera's earliest animated series through 1962 as part of the golden age, with shows likeRuff and Reddy (1957),Huckleberry Hound (1958),Quick Draw McGraw (1959),The Flintstones (1960),Yogi Bear (1961),Top Cat (1961),Wally Gator (1962) andThe Jetsons (1962), including the theatrical cartoons released byColumbia Pictures such asLoopy De Loop (1959) and thefeature films released between 1964 and 1966.^[12][13][14]Huckleberry Hound became the first animated television series to win anEmmy Award (forOutstanding Children's Program).^[15][16]

Walt Disney had originally planned to become a newspaper cartoonist drawing political caricatures and comic strips.^[17] However, nobody would hire him, so his older brotherRoy, who was working as a banker at the time, got him a job at the Pesmen-Rubin Art Studio where he created advertisements for newspapers, magazines, and movie theaters.^[18] Here he met fellow cartoonistUb Iwerks. The two quickly became friends, and in January 1920, when their time at the studio expired, they decided to open up their own advertising agency together called Iwerks-Disney Commercial Artists.^[19] The business, however, got off to a rough start and Disney temporarily left for the Kansas City Film and Ad Co. to raise money for the fleeting company and Iwerks soon followed as he was unable to run the business alone.^[20]

While working there he made commercials for local theaters using crudecut-out animation. Disney became fascinated by the art and decided to become an animator.^[21] He then borrowed a camera from work and rented a book from the local library calledAnimated Cartoons: How They Are Made, Their Origin and Development by Edwin G. Lutz, decided thatcel animation would produce better quality, and decided to open up his own animation studio.^[22] Disney then teamed up withFred Harman and made their first film,The Little Artist which was nothing more than an artist (Disney) taking a cigarette break at his work desk. Harman soon dropped out of the venture, but Disney was able to strike a deal with local theater owner Frank L. Newman and animated a cartoon by himself entitledNewman Laugh-O-Grams screened in roughly February 1921.^[23][24] Disney then quit his job at the film and ad company and incorporatedLaugh-O-Gram Films in May 1922, and hired former advertising colleagues as unpaid "students" of animation includingUb Iwerks and Fred Harman's brother,Hugh Harman.^[25]

Throughout 1922, the Disney company produced a series of "modernized" adaptations of fairy tales includingLittle Red Riding Hood,The Four Musicians of Bremen,Jack and the Beanstalk,Jack the Giant Killer,Goldielocks and the Three Bears,Puss in Boots,Cinderella andTommy Tucker's Tooth, the latter being mostly a live-action film about dental hygiene. None of these films turned a profit.^[26] The last film made by the Disney company was a short calledAlice's Wonderland. Loosely inspired byLewis Carroll'sAlice's Adventures in Wonderland, the short featured a live-action five-year-old girl named Alice (Virginia Davis) who had adventures in a fully animated world. The film was never fully completed, however, as the studio went bankrupt in the summer of 1923.^[25][27]

Upon the closure of Laugh-O-Grams, Walt Disney worked as a freelance filmmaker before selling his camera for a one-way ticket to Los Angeles.^[28] Upon arrival, he moved in with his Uncle Robert and his brother Roy, who was recovering at a nearby government hospital fromtuberculosis he had suffered during World War I.^[29] After failing to get a job as a director of live-action films he sent the unfinishedAlice's Wonderland reel to short-subjects distributorMargaret J. Winkler ofWinkler Pictures in New York. Winkler was distributing both theFelix the Cat andOut of the Inkwell cartoons at the time, but the Fleischer brothers were about to leave to set up their own distribution company, Red Seal Films, and Felix producerPat Sullivan was constantly fighting with Winkler; therefore, Winkler agreed to distribute Disney'sAlice Comedies as a kind of insurance policy.^[30]

Once Walt Disney received the notice on October 15, he convinced Roy to leave the hospital and help him set up his business.^[31] The next day, on October 16, 1923, Disney Bros. Cartoon Studio opened its doors at a small rented office two blocks away from his uncle's house with Roy managing business and Walt handling creative affairs.^[30] He persuaded Virginia Davis's parents to bring her to Los Angeles to star in the films. The first officialAlice short,Alice's Day at Sea, was released on January 1, 1924, delayed by eleven days.^[30] Ub Iwerks was re-hired in February 1925 and the quality of animation on theAlice series improved; this prompted Hugh Harman,Rudolf Ising, andCarman Maxwell to follow Disney west in June 1925.^[32][33] Around that time, Davis was replaced with Maggie Gay and the cartoons started to focus less on the live-action scenes and more the fully animated scenes, particularly those featuring Alice's pet sidekickJulius, who bore an uncanny resemblance to Felix the Cat.^[34] In February 1926, Disney built a larger studio at 2719 Hyperion Avenue and changed the name of the company to Walt Disney Cartoons.^[35][36]

In November 1923, Winkler marriedCharles Mintz and handed over the business to him when she became pregnant a few months later.^[37][38] Mintz was often described as a cold, stern and ruthless chain-smoking tyrant; one employee remembered him as "a grim-faced man, with a pair of cold eyes glittering behind the pince nez" who "never talked to the staff. He looked us over like an admiral surveying a row of stanchions."^[39] While Winkler had offered gentle critiques and encouragement, Mintz communicated to Disney in a harsh and cruel tone.^[38][40] In 1927, Mintz ordered Disney to stop producingAlice Comedies due to the costs of combining live-action and animation.

Mintz managed to gain a distribution deal withUniversal Studios; however it was Mintz—not Disney—who signed the deal. Disney and lead animator Ub Iwerks createdOswald the Lucky Rabbit, who debuted inTrolley Troubles short in 1927. The Oswald series was a success and became the first hit for the Walt Disney studio.^{[citation needed]}

In the spring of 1928, Disney travelled to New York to ask Mintz for a budget increase. His request was harshly denied by Mintz, who pointed out that in the contract Mintz had signed with Universal, it was Universal—not Disney—that owned the rights to the character. Mintz revealed to Disney that he had hired most of his staff away from the studio (except for Ub Iwerks,Les Clark andWilfred Jackson who refused to leave) and threatened that unless he took a 20 percent budget decrease, he would drop Disney and continue the Oswald series by himself. Disney refused, and Winkler Pictures dropped its distribution.^{[citation needed]}

While Walt Disney was finishing the remaining cartoons for Mintz, he and his staff secretly came up with a new cartoon character to replace Oswald:Mickey Mouse.

The inspiration for Mickey has never been clear. Disney said that he came up with the idea on the train ride back to Los Angeles shortly after the confrontation with Mintz, but other records say that he came up with the idea after he returned to the studio. Disney once said that he was inspired by a pet mouse he once had at the old Laugh-O-Grams studio, but more commonly said that he chose a mouse because a mouse had never been the central character of a cartoon series before.

In 1928,Plane Crazy became the first entry into the Mickey Mouse series; however, it was not released because of a poor reaction from test screenings and failed to gain a distributor. The second Mickey Mouse cartoonThe Gallopin' Gaucho also failed to gain the attention of a distributor. Disney knew what was missing: sound.Sound film had been captivating audiences since 1927 withThe Jazz Singer and Walt decided that the next cartoonSteamboat Willie would have sound.Steamboat Willie was not the first sound cartoon,Max andDave Fleischer had producedSong Car-Tunes since 1926 after the release of the sound filmDon Juan. However, they failed to keep the sound synchronized with the animation and the main focus of the cartoons were thebouncing ballsing-a-longs. TheSong Car-Tunes were not a success and some staff members doubted whether a cartoon with sound would be successful. Disney arranged a special preview screening with the music and sound effects being played live behind stage through a microphone. TheSteamboat Willie test screening was a success and managed to gain a distributor,Celebrity Pictures chiefPat Powers. However, the first attempt to synchronize the sound with the animation was a disaster. In order to finance the second recording, Disney sold his car. This time he used a click track to keep his musicians on the beat (he later learned that it was easier to record the dialogue, music and sound effects first and animate to the sound). Little more than a month beforeSteamboat Willie′s premiere,Paul Terry released his sound cartoonDinner Time; however it was not a financial success and Disney described it as "a bunch of racket".

Steamboat Willie was released on November 18, 1928, and was a massive success. Disney quickly gained huge dominance in the animation field using sound in his future cartoons by dubbingPlane Crazy,The Gallopin' Gaucho and the nearly completedThe Barn Dance. Mickey Mouse's popularity put the animated character into the ranks of the most popular screen personalities in the world. Disney's biggest competitor,Pat Sullivan with hisFelix the Cat, was eclipsed by Mickey's popularity and the studio closed in 1932.

Merchandising based on Disney cartoons rescued a number of companies from bankruptcy during the depths of the Depression, and Disney took advantage of this popularity to move forward with further innovations in animation. In 1929, he launched a new series entitled theSilly Symphonies which was based around music with no recurring characters. However, they did not become as popular as the Mickey Mouse cartoon series.

In 1930, after a falling-out with Powers, Disney switched distributors toColumbia Pictures. However, Ub Iwerks left Disney after an offer from Powers to be in charge of his own studio.^[41]

In 1932, Mickey Mouse had become an international sensation, but theSilly Symphonies had not. Columbia Pictures had backed out of its distribution of the series and Disney was lured to move theSilly Symphonies toUnited Artists by a budget increase. Disney then worked with theTechnicolor company to create the first fullthree-strip color cartoon,Flowers and Trees. Another great success, it became the first cartoon to win theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film. Shortly afterward, Disney negotiated an exclusive, but temporary, deal with Technicolor so only he could use the three-strip process in animated films—no other studio was permitted to use it.^[42][43] However, he withheld making Mickey Mouse in color because he thought that Technicolor might boost theSilly Symphonies′ popularity.

By 1932, Disney had realized that the success of animated films depended upon telling emotionally gripping stories that would grab the audience and not let go.^[44][45] This realization led to an important innovation around 1932–1933: a "story department", separate from the animators, withstoryboard artists who would be dedicated to working on a "story development" phase of the production pipeline.^[46] In turn, Disney's continued emphasis on story development and characterization resulted in another hit in 1933:Three Little Pigs, which is seen as the first cartoon in which multiple characters displayed unique, individual personalities and has been described as the most successful animated short of all time,^[47] and also featured the hit song that became the anthem in fighting theGreat Depression: "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf".^[48] In the Mickey Mouse series, he continued to add personality to his characters; this resulted in the creation of new characters such asPluto withThe Chain Gang in 1930,Goofy withMickey's Revue in 1932, andDonald Duck in 1934 withThe Wise Little Hen (under theSilly Symphony series). When Disney's contract with Technicolor expired, the Mickey Mouse series was moved into Technicolor starting withThe Band Concert in 1935. In addition, Mickey was partially redesigned for Technicolor later that year.^[49] In 1937,William Garity developed Disney'smultiplane camera, which gave a sophisticated illusion of depth to his animated productions. He first used this on the Academy Award-winningSilly Symphony cartoonThe Old Mill.^[50] Much of Disney's work was heavily influenced by European stories and myths, and the work of illustrators such asDoré andBusch. Also in 1937, Disney changed distributors for theSilly Symphonies toRKO Radio Pictures, remaining with this distributor until the early 1950s, when they were re-issued and re-released by Disney's new distribution company,Buena Vista Distribution.

In 1937, Disney producedSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the first American feature-length animated musical fantasy film. This was the culmination of four years of effort by Disney studios. Disney was convinced that short cartoons would not keep his studio profitable in the long run, so he took what was seen as an enormous gamble. The critics predicted thatSnow White would result in financial ruin for the studio. They said that the colors would be too bright for the audience and they would get sick of the gags and leave.^[51] However, the critics were proven wrong.Snow White was a worldwide box office success, and was universally acclaimed as a landmark in the development of animation as a serious art form.^[52]

After the success ofSnow White, Disney went on to producePinocchio, which was released in 1940. However, costing twice as much to make asSnow White,Pinocchio was not a financial success, sinceWorld War II (which began in Europe in 1939) had cut off 40 percent of Disney's foreign release market. Although it was a moderate success in the United States, the domestic gross alone was not enough to make back its production budget. However, the film did receive very positive reviews and has made millions from subsequent re-releases. Later that year, Disney producedFantasia. It originally started with the Mickey Mouse cartoonThe Sorcerer's Apprentice in an attempt to recapture Mickey's popularity, which had sharply declined due to the popularity of Max Fleischer'sPopeye and Disney'sDonald Duck.^[53][54] In theSorcerer's Apprentice, Mickey Mouse was redesigned byFred Moore. This redesign of Mickey is still in use today.^[49] The short featured no dialogue, only music which was conducted byLeopold Stokowski. When the budget for the short grew very expensive, Stokowski suggested to Disney that it could be a feature film with other pieces of classical music matched to animation. Disney agreed and production started.Fantasia also became the first commercial film to be released instereophonic sound. However, likePinocchio,Fantasia was not a financial success.Fantasia was also the first Disney film not to be received well, receiving mixed reviews from the critics. It was looked down upon by music critics and audiences, who felt that Disney was striving for something beyond his reach by trying to introduce mainstream animation to abstract art, classical music, and "elite" subjects. However, the film would be re-evaluated in later years and considered an animated masterpiece.^[55]

In 1941, in order to compensate for the relativepoor box office ofPinocchio andFantasia, Disney produced a low-budget feature film,Dumbo. Just a few days after rough animation was complete onDumbo, theDisney animators' strike broke out. This was caused by theScreen Cartoonist's Guild (which had been formed in 1938), who severed many ties between Walt Disney and his staff, while encouraging many members of the Disney studio to leave and seek greener pastures. Later that year,Dumbo became a big success, the first for Disney sinceSnow White. The critically acclaimed film brought in much-needed revenue and kept the studio afloat. A few months afterDumbo was released in 1941, the United States entered the war after the attack onPearl Harbor. This led to the mobilization of all movie studios (including their cartoon divisions) to producepropaganda material to bolster public confidence and encourage support for the war effort. The war (along with the strike) shook Disney's empire, as the US Army had seized Disney's studio as soon as the US entered World War II in December 1941.^[56] As a result, Disney put the feature filmsSong of the South (1946),Mickey and the Beanstalk andBongo (ultimately combined as the featureFun and Fancy Free, 1947),The Wind in the Willows (ultimately released as part of the featureThe Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad, 1949),Alice in Wonderland (1951), andPeter Pan (1953), on hold until the war was over.

The only feature film that was allowed to continue production wasBambi, which was released in 1942.Bambi was groundbreaking in terms of animating animals realistically. However, due to the war, the film failed at the box office and received mixed reviews from the critics. This failure was to be short-lived as it grossed a considerable amount of money in the 1947 re-release.

Disney was now fully committed to the war effort and contributed by producing propaganda shorts and a feature film entitledVictory Through Air Power. This feature did poorly at the box office and the studio lost around $500,000 as a result.^[56] The required propaganda cartoon shorts were less popular than Disney's regular shorts, and by the time the Army ended its stay at Walt Disney Studios with the end of the war in 1945, Disney struggled to restart his studio, and had little cash on hand.^[57] Further Disney feature films of the 1940s were modestly budgeted collections of animated short segments put together to make a feature film. These began withSaludos Amigos in 1942 and continued during the war withThe Three Caballeros in 1944 and after the war withMake Mine Music in 1946,Fun and Fancy Free in 1947,Melody Time in 1948, andThe Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad in 1949. The planned feature filmsMickey and the Beanstalk,Bongo, andThe Wind in the Willows were condensed into the package filmsFun and Fancy Free andThe Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad since he feared that the low-budget animation would not become profitable.^[58] The most ambitious Disney film of this period was the 1946 filmSong of the South, a musical film blending live-action and animation which drew criticism in later years for accusations ofracial stereotyping.

In 1950, Disney producedCinderella. This was an enormous success, becoming the highest-grossing film of 1950, and became Disney's most successful film sinceSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Disney's first single-narrative feature film to be entirely animated sinceBambi, as the films since then had either beenanthology films or involved some live-action.^[59] Disney's company started to diversify, producing live-action feature films beginning withTreasure Island (1950) andnature documentaries, the first of which wasSeal Island (1948). As a result, Disney was needed on several different units at one time and spent less time on animation. In 1951, he releasedAlice in Wonderland, a project he had been working on since the late 1930s, though it was shelved during the war.Alice in Wonderland was initially moderately successful and received mixed reviews from the critics. A few decades later, the film was hailed as one of Disney's greatest classics, making millions in subsequent theatrical and home video releases. In 1953, he releasedPeter Pan, which, likeAlice in Wonderland, had been in production since the late 1930s/early 1940s and was shelved during the war. However, unlikeAlice,Peter Pan was a big success both critically and financially on its first release.^{[citation needed]}

When Disney's contract with RKO expired at the end of 1953, he was concerned about RKO's instability due to ownerHoward Hughes' increasingly erratic control of the studio. Rather than renewing the RKO contract, Disney started distributing films through the newly createdBuena Vista Distribution subsidiary. This allowed a higher budget for shorts and features than the last few years of cartoons made for RKO dictated, which made it possible to make some of the cartoons in the newCinemaScope format. However, the budget per short was nowhere near as high as it had been in the 1940s as Disney had been focusing more on live action, television, and feature animation and less on short animation. In 1953, shortly after the switch from RKO to Buena Vista, Disney released its final Mickey Mouse short,The Simple Things. From there, the studio produced fewer animated shorts by the year until the animated shorts division was eventually closed in 1956.^[60] After that, any future short cartoon work was done through the feature animation division until 1969. The last Disney animated short of the golden age of American animation, the Oscar-winningIt's Tough to Be a Bird!, was released in 1969.^{[citation needed]}

In 1955, Disney createdLady and the Tramp, the first animated film inCinemaScope. Upon building Disneyland in 1955, Walt Disney regained a huge amount of popularity among the public,^[61] and turned his focus to producing his most ambitious movie:Sleeping Beauty. This was filmed inSuper Technirama70 mm film and in stereophonic sound likeFantasia.Sleeping Beauty also signaled a change in the style of drawing, with cartoony and angular characters, taking influence fromUPA. Although it was the second-highest-grossing film of 1959 (just behindBen-Hur),Sleeping Beauty went over budget, costing $6 million, and the film failed to make back its expenditure. The studio was in serious debt and had to cut the cost of animation. In 1960, this resulted in Disney switching toxerography, which replaced the traditionalhand-inking. The first feature films that used Xerox cels were101 Dalmatians (1961) andThe Sword in the Stone (1963) which were box-office successes.^[62] However, the Xerox resulted in films with a "sketchier" look and lacked the quality of the hand-inked films. According toFloyd Norman, who was working at Disney at the time, it felt like the end of an era.^[63]

The Silver Age came to a defining close with the passing ofWalt Disney on December 15, 1966. His death left the studio without its visionary leader, causing uncertainty about its future direction. Many of the projects he had personally overseen were completed posthumously, and the company began a gradual transition toward a new creative era, carrying forward his legacy while facing the challenge of maintaining the distinct artistic and storytelling standards he had set.

One of Walt Disney's main competitors wasMax Fleischer, the head ofFleischer Studios, which produced cartoons forParamount Pictures. Fleischer Studios was a family-owned business, operated by Max Fleischer and his younger brotherDave, who supervised the production of the cartoons. The Fleischers scored successes with theBetty Boop cartoons and thePopeye the Sailor series. Popeye's popularity during the 1930s rivaled Mickey Mouse at times, and Popeye fan clubs sprang up across the country in imitation of Mickey's fan clubs; in 1935, polls showed that Popeye was even more popular than Mickey Mouse.^[64] However, during the early 1930s, stricter censorship rules enforced by the newProduction Code in 1934 required animation producers to remove risqué humor. The Fleischers, in particular, had to tone down the content of their Betty Boop cartoons, which waned in popularity afterwards.^[65] The Fleischers also produced a number ofColor Classics cartoons during the 1930s which attempted to emulate Walt Disney's use of color, but the series was not a success.^[66]

In 1934, Max Fleischer became interested in producing an animated feature film shortly after Walt Disney's announcement ofSnow White, but Paramount vetoed the idea. In 1936, Fleischer Studios produced the first of three two-reelPopeye Technicolor features:Popeye the Sailor Meets Sindbad the Sailor in 1936,Popeye the Sailor Meets Ali Baba's Forty Thieves in 1937, andAladdin and His Wonderful Lamp in 1939. In 1938, after Disney's success withSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Paramount gave the Fleischers permission to produce an animated feature film and Fleischer studio relocated itself from New York toMiami, Florida in order to avoid organized unions, which became a threat to the studio aftera five-month strike occurred among Fleischer Studio workers in late 1937.^[67] Fleischer Studios also sought to rapidly expand the studio's staff by hiring numerous West Coast artists, including animators and writers fromDisney,Warner, andMGM. Here the Fleischers producedGulliver's Travels which was released in 1939. It was a small success and encouraged the Fleischers to produce more.^{[citation needed]}

On May 24, 1941, the Fleischers gave Paramount full ownership of the studio as collateral to pay off their increasing debts left from the loans they had obtained from the studio, as well as to offset the lack of revenue from unsuccessful cartoons likeStone Age,Gabby, andAnimated Antics.^[68] However, they still maintained their positions as heads of their studio's production.^[69] Under Paramount rule, the Fleischers brought Popeye into the Navy and contributed to the war effort, and gained more success by beginning a series of spectacularSuperman cartoons (the first of which was nominated for an Oscar) that have become legendary in themselves. Despite the success Superman gave the studio, a major blow to the studio occurred when the married Dave started having an adulterous affair with a secretary. This led to many disputes between the Fleischer brothers until Max and Dave were no longer speaking to each other.^[70]

The studio planned to release their next film,Mr. Bug Goes to Town, on Christmas day. But following initial press screening on December 4, the film was shelved for unknown reasons, though these screenings occurred just two days before theAttack on Pearl Harbor.^[71]Mr. Bug saw a very limited release by Paramount in the UK, California, and New York the following year, causing it to fail at the box office.^[71] Dave Fleischer, still maintaining his position as co-chief of his studio, had already left Fleischer Studios to work for Columbia Pictures'Screen Gems studio on November 22, 1941. Max also resigned in December and confirmed to Paramount presidentBarney Balaban in January the following year.^[69][72] Max and Dave agreed to surrender all studio assets to Paramount, which severed the brothers' control from Fleischer Studios completely.^[73]

Paramount renamed the studio toFamous Studios on May 22, 1942,^[72] but did not fully incorporate the studio until three days later, when the company's contract with the Fleischer brothers ran its course.^[74] The studio, in the meantime, continued to release a backlog of completed Fleischer cartoons until August of that year, with the Superman shortTerror on the Midway (1942) being the last cartoon released under the Fleischer Studios brand.

In the wake of the Fleischer brothers' departure, Paramount promoted three top employees,Isadore Sparber,Seymour Kneitel (Max Fleischer's son-in-law), andDan Gordon as production supervisors, while Sam Buchwald was designated as executive producer. Paramount also discontinued the expensiveSuperman cartoons in 1943, instead adaptingMarge'sLittle Lulu comic strip to theaters,^[75] as well as downsizing the studio and moving it back toNew York City earlier that year.

In concept, Famous Studios continued where Fleischer Studios ended off, with the studio continuing to produce Popeye cartoons, which shifted to color in 1943, as well as creatingNoveltoons, an anthology short series similar to Fleischer'sColor Classics. TheNoveltoons shorts series introduced many of Famous' recurring characters such as Blackie the Lamb, Wolfie (Blackie's main rival),Casper the Friendly Ghost (created byJoe Oriolo andSeymour Reit from an unpublished children's book),Little Audrey (a character similar to and replacing Little Lulu),Herman and Katnip (a cat and mouse duel similar toTom and Jerry), andBaby Huey. Famous also revivedScreen Songs, another series inherited from Fleischer Studios. The series was renamedKartunes in 1951 and continued for two more years before being discontinued. Buchwald died from a heart attack in 1951,^[76] leaving Sparber and Kneitel as the sole producers.Dave Tendlar was promoted to director in 1953.

The departure of the Fleischer brothers had a prolonged effect on the studio: the Paramount cartoons of the 1940s continued to be entertaining and popular and still retained most of the Fleischer style and gloss; however, animation fans and historians noted the studio's diverging tone by the turn of the decade, as the style was criticized for its highly formulaic story telling, a shifted appeal geared more towards children, unusually violent gags, and a lack of artistic ambition or sophistication that management under the Fleischer brothers had striven for.^[77][78]

By October 1956, Paramount gained further control of the studio by downsizing it again and renaming it to Paramount Cartoon Studios.^[79] The following year, the studio ended Popeye's theatrical run, withSpooky Swabs (directed by Sparber, who died the next year) being the last short of the series. Stricter budgets forced the studio to uselimited animation techniques comparable to television animation at the time. Paramount continued to release theatrical cartoons into the 1960s, but also began dabbling in television production, such as co-producing thePopeye the Sailor TV series,The New Casper Cartoon Show andFelix the Cat. Their new theatrical cartoons at this time includedModern Madcaps,The Cat,Swifty and Shorty, andComic Kings. Paramount also distributed a handful of cartoons fromRembrandt Films, most notably a series of shorts featuring the characterNudnik, created byGene Deitch.^{[citation needed]}

Kneitel's death in 1964 brought sudden changes to the studio as Paramount now had to look for new artists. CartoonistHoward Post was initially placed as the studio's primary director, and createdHoney Halfwitch. However, Post's tenure was not successful, and even angered Paramount's board of directors with the cartoonTwo By Two (1966), a lampoon ofNoah's Ark that not only included a clone of Warner'sDaffy Duck, but was also accused of having anti-religious overtones.^[80] Post was replaced in late 1965 byJames Culhane who wanted to diversify the studio's content, but he also left in 1967 due to growing conflicts with studio management. Ex-Terrytoons animatorRalph Bakshi succeeded Culhane that year, and quickly put several shorts into production. But Paramount's new owners,Gulf+Western, began the process to shut the cartoon studio, which was completed by December.^[81]

In 1929, former Disney animatorsHugh Harman andRudolf Ising made a cartoon entitledBosko, the Talk-Ink Kid, and tried to sell it to a distributor in 1930.Warner Bros., which had previously made an unsuccessful attempt to set up a cartoon studio in New York in order to compete with Disney, agreed to distribute the series. Under producerLeon Schlesinger's guidance,Harman-Ising Productions createdLooney Tunes (the title being a variation on Disney's award-winningSilly Symphonies) starring their characterBosko. A second Harman-Ising series,Merrie Melodies, followed in 1931. Both series showed the strong influence of the early Disney movies.

After disputes over money, Harman-Ising parted ways with Schlesinger (who rejected their demands for raised budgets) in 1933, takingBosko with them to work withMetro Goldwyn Mayer.^[82] Schlesinger began his own cartoon operation under the new nameLeon Schlesinger Productions. AnimatorsTom Palmer andEarl Duvall were assigned as directors, with Palmer creating a Bosko clone known asBuddy; meanwhile, Schlesinger responded to Walt Disney's use of color by makingMerrie Melodies cartoons in color starting in 1934.^[83] However, since Disney had an exclusive deal with Technicolor, Schlesinger was forced to useCinecolor and Two Strip Technicolor until 1935 when Disney's contract with Technicolor had expired.

The new studio had a rocky start as Buddy failed to be a successful replacement for Bosko due to his bland personality. Tom Palmer's inexperience as a director resulted in him being terminated by Schlesinger. Duvall was also later fired following a drunken confrontation. Schlesinger decided to re-hire several Harman-Ising animators (includingFriz Freleng) to run the studio instead. Buddy was phased out by 1935.

Friz Freleng's 1935 cartoonI Haven't Got a Hat was the first screen appearance ofPorky Pig. That same year, Schlesinger hired a new animation director who proceeded to revitalize the studio:Tex Avery. Schlesinger put Avery in charge of the low-budgetLooney Tunes in a low run-down old building the animators named Termite Terrace. Under Avery, Porky Pig replaced theBuddy series and became the first Warner Bros. cartoon character to achieve star power. Also at Termite Terrace, animatorBob Clampett redesigned Porky from a fat, chubby pig to a more cute and childlike character.

Unlike the other cartoon producers at the time, Avery had no intention of competing with Walt Disney, but instead brought a new wacky, zany style of animation to the studio that increased the Warner Bros. cartoons' popularity in the crowded marketplace. This was firmly established in 1937 when Tex Avery directedPorky's Duck Hunt. During production of the short, lead animator Bob Clampett elaborated the exit of the duck character by having him jump up and down on his head, flip around and holler off into the sunset.^[84] This created the character ofDaffy Duck. After Daffy was created, he added even more success to Warner Bros. cartoons and replaced Porky Pig as the studio's most popular animated character.^[85] The high demand for more cartoons resulted in Schlesinger subcontractingUb Iwerks to make some shorts with his own animation unit, with Clampett andChuck Jones being brought in to assist. Iwerks directed only two shorts before he was succeeded by Clampett.

Freleng left Warner Bros. for two years in 1938 when he was lured to a newly formedanimation studio by MGM. In the meantime, his replacements, writerBen Hardaway and animatorCal Dalton, created a rabbit character who first appeared inPorky's Hare Hunt (1938). The character, having a personality similar to Daffy's, became the basis of development for Warner Bros.' biggest star,Bugs Bunny. Bugs made his official debut in Avery's 1940 Academy Award-nominated cartoonA Wild Hare, paired withElmer Fudd (who had also been created by Avery in preliminary form three years prior). Bugs quickly replaced Daffy as the studio's top star. By 1942, he had become the most popular cartoon character.^[85] Because of the success of Bugs, Daffy and Porky, the Schlesinger studio now had risen to new heights, and Bugs quickly became the star of the colorMerrie Melodies cartoons, which had previously been used for one-shot character appearances.^[85] Avery left Warner Bros. in 1941 and moved toMGM after having feuds with Scheshinger over the ending ofThe Heckling Hare and the rejection for an idea of a short series of live action animals with animated mouths (which he later sold toParamount Pictures to create theSpeaking with Animals series of shorts). Clampett took over Avery's unit whileNorman McCabe took over Clampett's black-and-white unit.^[86] By 1942, Warners' shorts had surpassed Disney's in sales and popularity.^[87]

Frank Tashlin also worked with Avery in theMerrie Melodies department. He began at Warner in 1933 as an animator but was fired and joined Iwerks in 1934. Tashlin returned to Warners in 1936, taking over direction of theMerrie Melodies department, but left again in 1938, with his position soon taken byChuck Jones. He returned in 1943 after McCabe was drafted into the army, but left again for the final time in late 1944 to direct live-action films.Robert McKimson, who had an extensive career at the studio up to that point, was appointed to director to replace Tashlin.^[88]

Schlesinger sold his studio to Warner Bros. in August 1944, andEdward Selzer was in turn named the new producer. By this time, Warner cartoons' top directors wereFriz Freleng,Chuck Jones,Bob Clampett andRobert McKimson. Their cartoons are now considered classics of the medium. They directed some of the most beloved animated shorts of all time, including Clampett'sPorky in Wackyland,Wabbit Twouble,A Corny Concerto,The Great Piggy Bank Robbery, andThe Big Snooze; Freleng'sYou Ought to Be in Pictures,Rhapsody in Rivets,Little Red Riding Rabbit,Birds Anonymous, andKnighty Knight Bugs; Jones'sRabbit Fire,Duck Amuck,Duck Dodgers in the 24½th Century,One Froggy Evening, andWhat's Opera, Doc?; and McKimson'sWalky Talky Hawky,Hillbilly Hare,Devil May Hare,The Hole Idea andStupor Duck.^{[citation needed]}

Besides McKimson being promoted to director in the mid-1940s,Arthur Davis took over Clampett's unit in mid-1945 after Clampett abruptly left the studio. Clampett went to work onBeany and Cecil. Many of the studios most well-known recurring characters were created or reestablished following the Warner acquisition. These includedTweety (1942),Pepé Le Pew (1945),Sylvester the Cat (1945),Yosemite Sam (1945),Foghorn Leghorn (1946), theGoofy Gophers (1947),Marvin the Martian (1948),Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (1949),Granny (1950),Speedy Gonzales (1953), andThe Tasmanian Devil (1954), among others. Davis' unit was shut down in late 1947 by Warner's due to budget issues, causing him to move to Freleng's unit to become one of his key animators.^{[citation needed]}

In 1948, Warners could no longer force theaters to buy their movies and shorts together as packages, due to theUnited States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. anti-trust case that year. It resulted in the shorts having to be produced on increasingly tighter budgets as time went on. Warner Bros. also closed their entire animation department in 1953 due to the immense popularity of3D films, but reopened the following year after the end of the 3-D craze. Selzer retired in 1958, with production managerJohn W. Burton taking his place.David DePatie assumed the role as producer in 1960 after Burton also left the studio.^{[citation needed]}

After more than two decades at the top, Warner Bros. shut down the original Termite Terrace studio in 1963. That same year, Freleng and DePatie formed their own studio,DePatie-Freleng Enterprises, which assumed production ofLooney Tunes following an agreement with Warner Bros. Most of theLooney Tunes characters were retired from theatres during this time, including Warner's biggest star, Bugs Bunny. Daffy Duck, however, still appeared in theatrical cartoons, mostly paired with Speedy Gonzales.^{[citation needed]}

Fourteen original Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner cartoons were also commissioned, 11 of which were outsourced toFormat Films as DePatie-Freleng was swamped with work while also producingThe Pink Panther cartoons forUnited Artists. The outsourced cartoons, directed by former Chuck Jones animatorRudy Larriva and nicknamed "The Larriva Eleven", were not well received and were criticized for their inability to recapture the spirit and charm of Jones' original cartoons.^{[citation needed]}

After DePatie-Freleng ceased production ofLooney Tunes in 1967,William L. Hendricks was put in charge of production of the newly renamedWarner Bros.-Seven Arts animation studio and hired veterans such asAlex Lovy andLaVerne Harding from the Walter Lantz studio; Volus Jones and Ed Solomon from Disney; Jaime Diaz, who later worked onThe Fairly OddParents as director; and David Hanan, who previously worked onRoger Ramjet. Hendricks brought only three of the originalLooney Tunes veterans to the studio: Ted Bonniscken, Norman McCabe, and Robert Givens. Under Hendricks and Lovy, the studios continued making Daffy-Speedy cartoons and created new characters such asCool Cat andMerlin the Magic Mouse. Despite this, the cartoons of this era were critically panned and are widely considered to be the worst in the studio's history (despiteNorman Normal gaining acult following).^{[citation needed]}

Lovy left the studio in 1968 and Robert McKimson was brought back to take over. McKimson used the pre-1967 characters only in bumpers^{[clarification needed]} forThe Bugs Bunny-Road Runner Show and in advertisements; otherwise, he mostly focused on the recurring characters Alex Lovy had created and two of his own creation,Bunny and Claude. The last of the originalLooney Tunes shorts produced wasBugged by a Bee (1969) and the lastMerrie Melodies short wasInjun Trouble (1969), which shares its name with anotherLooney Tunes short from 1938. The Warner Bros.-Seven Arts studio finally shut down in 1969. A total of 1,039 Looney Tunes shorts had been created.

A decade later, after the success of the film,The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie, which consisted predominantly of footage from the classic shorts by Jones, a new in-house studio to produce original animation opened its doors in 1980 namedWarner Bros. Animation, which exists to this day.^{[citation needed]}

At first, Mickey Mouse was drawn by Walt Disney's long-time partner and friendUb Iwerks, who was also a technical innovator in cartoons, and drew an average of 600 drawings for Disney on a daily basis;^[89] Disney was responsible for the ideas in the cartoons, and Iwerks was responsible for bringing them to life.^[89] However, Iwerks left the Disney studio in 1930 to form his own company, which was financially backed by Celebrity Pictures owner Pat Powers.^[90] After his departure, Disney eventually found a number of different animators to replace Iwerks.

Iwerks produced two cartoon series during the 1930s:Flip the Frog andWillie Whopper. However, none of these cartoons came close to matching the success of Disney or Fleischer cartoons and, in 1933, MGM, Iwerks' cartoon distributor since 1930, ended distribution of his cartoons, with Iwerks leaving after his contract expired in 1934.^[91]

After MGM dropped Iwerks, they hired Harman and Ising following their split fromLeon Schlesinger andWarner Bros. and appointed them heads of the studio. They began producingBosko andHappy Harmonies cartoons which were emulative of Disney'sSilly Symphonies.^[92] Harman and Ising gained success with shorts such asThe Calico Dragon (1935),The Old Mill Pond (1936, both nominated for Academy Awards) andTo Spring (1936). But much like their time at Warner Bros., the duo experiencedcost overruns on a regular basis. By 1937, MGM, in attempt to make cheaper cartoons, decided to fire the duo and establish a new in-house animation studio withFred Quimby as producer.^[93]

With a new studio formed, Quimby kept a number of Harman and Ising's staff and scouted other animation studios for talent (including Warner directorFriz Freleng and a bulk of animators from theTerrytoons studio). The first series he produced was an animated adaptation of the comic strip seriesThe Captain and the Kids (which itself was a version ofThe Katzenjammer Kids, produced by that strip's original creatorRudolph Dirks but for a differentsyndicate).The Captain and The Kids series was unsuccessful.^[93] In 1939, however, Quimby gained success after rehiring Harman & Ising. After returning to MGM, Ising created MGM's first successful animated star namedBarney Bear, who first appeared inThe Bear That Couldn't Sleep (1939). Harman directed his masterpiecePeace on Earth (1939) in the meantime, and was also nominated for an Oscar.^[93]

In 1939,William Hanna andJoseph Barbera started a partnership that lasted for more than six decades until Hanna's death in 2001. The duo's first cartoon together wasPuss Gets the Boot (1940), featuring an unnamed mouse's attempts to outwit a house cat named Jasper. Though released without fanfare, the short was financially and critically successful, earning an Academy Award nomination for Best Short Subject (Cartoons) of 1940. On the strength of the Oscar nomination and public demand,Hanna and Barbera set themselves to producing a long-running series of cat-and-mouse cartoons, soon naming the charactersTom & Jerry.Puss Gets the Boot did not win the 1940 Academy Award for Best Cartoon, but another MGM cartoon, Rudolf Ising'sThe Milky Way (1940) did, making MGM the first studio to wrestle the Cartoon Academy Award away from Walt Disney.After appearing inPuss Gets the Boot, Tom and Jerry quickly became the stars of MGM cartoons. With Hanna-Barbera working for them, MGM was finally able to compete with Walt Disney in the field of animated cartoons. The shorts were successful at the box office, many licensed products (comic books, toys, etc.) were released to the market, and the series earned twelve more Academy Award for Short Subjects (Cartoons) nominations, with seven of theTom and Jerry shorts going on to win the Academy Award:The Yankee Doodle Mouse (1943),Mouse Trouble (1944),Quiet Please! (1945),The Cat Concerto (1946),The Little Orphan (1948),The Two Mouseketeers (1951), andJohann Mouse (1952).Tom and Jerry was eventually tied withDisney's Silly Symphonies as the most-awarded theatrical cartoon series. No other character-based theatrical animated series has won more awards.^{[citation needed]} In addition to the classicTom and Jerry shorts, Hanna and Barbera also produced/directed sixone-shot theatrical shorts besides it, includingGallopin' Gals (1940),Officer Pooch (1941),War Dogs (1943) andGood Will to Men (a remake ofPeace on Earth, 1955).^{[citation needed]}

Key to the successes ofTom and Jerry and other MGM cartoons was the work ofScott Bradley, who scored nearly all of the cartoons for the studio from 1934 to 1958. Bradley's scores made use of both classical and jazz sensibilities. In addition, he often used songs from the scores of MGM's feature films, the most frequent of them being "The Trolley Song" fromMeet Me in St. Louis (1944) and "Sing Before Breakfast" fromBroadway Melody of 1936 (1935).^{[citation needed]}

Hugh Harman left for the final time in April 1941,^[94] prompting Quimby to search for a replacement. He hiredTex Avery in September, who at that point had left Warner Bros. after internal feuds withLeon Schlesinger.^[95] Avery revitalized their cartoon studio with the same spark that had infused the Warner animators. The wild surreal masterpieces of his MGM studio days set new standards for "adult" entertainment inCode-era cartoons, most famously exemplified in his series of shorts featuringRed Hot Riding Hood.^{[citation needed]}

Tex Avery did not like to use recurring characters but did stay faithful to a character throughout his career at MGM withDroopy, who was created inDumb-Hounded in 1943. Avery also createdScrewy Squirrel the following year, a character known for his outrageously brash and erratic personality who torments his adversaries, but he grew less fond of him and discontinued the series after five cartoons. He also created theOf Mice and Men-inspired duoGeorge and Junior in 1946, but only four cartoons were produced. Avery's other notaable films for MGM includeBlitz Wolf (1942, also nominated),Northwest Hounded Police (1946),King-Size Canary (1947),The Cat That Hated People (1948),Bad Luck Blackie (1949), andMagical Maestro (1952).^{[citation needed]}

Avery's influence was particularly felt within the studio, with Hanna and Barbera adapting his brand of humor and violence into theirTom & Jerry shorts. The only exception to this wasRudolf Ising, who was unable to adjust to Avery's style and instead continued to direct cartoons with more meticulous influences. He too left MGM in 1943 to work for the Army Air Force film unit as an animation supervisor.^[96]

After Ising left MGM, Hanna/Barbera animatorGeorge Gordon was promoted to director to take his place. He directed severalBarney Bear shorts as well as a few other cartoons such asThe Storks Holiday, and two shorts starring an unnamed donkey. Gordon was uncredited for most of the cartoons he directed, and he left in 1943. In late 1946, animatorsMichael Lah andPreston Blair were paired together to direct three more Barney Bear cartoons.^[97] Lah and Blair's three Barney cartoons were noted for having a direction more in tone to that of Hanna-Barbera and Tex Avery, but the series halted abruptly again when MGM closed Lah and Blair's unit.^{[citation needed]}

Later in 1950, Tex Avery left MGM to take a year's sabbatical. Ex-Disney/Lantz animatorDick Lundy was brought in to take his position during this period. He directed one Droopy cartoon,Caballero Droopy, as well as ten additional Barney Bear cartoons, in which Barney was voiced byPaul Frees. Avery returned in October 1951, with Lundy leaving soon after.^{[citation needed]}

In 1953, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer closed down Avery's unit. Avery and most of his unit moved toWalter Lantz Productions, while MGM later promoted Lah to director again to take Avery's place. Fred Quimby retired in 1955, with Hanna and Barbera replacing him as producers on the remaining MGM cartoons (including the last seven of Lah'sDroopy cartoons) until 1957, when the studio closed entirely, ending all the animation productions. The duo founded their own studio,Hanna-Barbera, that year, bringing in most of the studio's staff in the process. The last cartoon from the MGM Cartoons unit,Tot Watchers, was released on August 1, 1958.^{[citation needed]}

By 1960, the high demand for moreTom and Jerry cartoons prompted MGM to search for another animation studio to produce the series, as Hanna and Barbera were now busy producing their own cartoons for television andColumbia Pictures. Through the help of MGM presidentJoe Vogel, the studio eventually signed a deal with theCzechoslovakia-based animation studioRembrandt Films to produce 13 moreTom and Jerry shorts.Gene Deitch, an American animator who considered himself a "UPA man" and who generally disliked slapstick-based cartoons, directed the series, whileWilliam L. Snyder served as the producer.^[98] Unlike the in-house cartoons, Deitch had to work with a much smaller budget of $10,000 and overall limited resources. This resulted in his films having an oddsurrealist nature, which Deitch did not intend. His Tom and Jerry shorts were noted for their jerky, occasionally praiseworthy animation, simplistic yet stylish backgrounds, and heavy use ofreverberation in the soundtrack.^[99][100] Another aspect to this era was the addition of a new human owner for Tom who appeared in three of the 13 shorts; he is noted for being much more short-tempered and violent then any of Tom's previous owners.^{[citation needed]}

Despite Deitch's shorts being commercially successful, many fans and critics considered them to be the worst ofTom and Jerry′s output up to that time. However, some fans appreciated Deitch's shorts for their quirkiness.^[101] After Vogel was fired, MGM decided not to renew their contract with Rembrandt.^[102] The last RembrandtTom and Jerry cartoon,Carmen Get It, was released on December 21, 1962.

Meanwhile,Chuck Jones started his own studioSib Tower 12 Productions after he, and his unit of animators, were fired byWarner Bros. for violating his exclusive contract by working on the UPA filmGay Purr-ee.^{[citation needed]} Jones signed a contract with MGM in 1963 to produce an additional34Tom and Jerry shorts, all of which carried his distinct style and influence he strived for during his time at Warners. Jones'sTom and Jerry shorts were more reminiscent of hisWile E. Coyote and the Road Runner cartoons due to their use ofblackout gags and specific jokes that can be found in the former shorts. MGM later purchased Jones's studio and renamed itMGM Animation/Visual Arts in 1964.^{[citation needed]} Around this time Jones also directed a handful of one-shot cartoons for MGM such as 1965'sThe Dot and the Line and 1967'sThe Bear That Wasn't, the former of which won the 1965Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.^[103] Jones's shorts were better received and saw varying degrees of success, but MGM eventually decided to cease production of newTom and Jerry shorts in 1967.^{[citation needed]}

Jones's studio's other works included the 1966 TV adaptation of Dr. Seuss'How the Grinch Stole Christmas!, 1970'sHorton Hears a Who! and the feature-length filmThe Phantom Tollbooth that same year. The studio eventually closed in late 1970, with Jones establishing another studio, Chuck Jones Enterprises, soon afterwards.^{[citation needed]}

WhileCharles Mintz was fired from Paramount and Universal, he was still in charge of his own cartoon operation producingKrazy Kat cartoons forColumbia Pictures. After creatingToby the Pup forRKO Pictures, who later discontinued it in favor ofVan Beuren Studios, he soon moved to create more shorts for Columbia. His most notable series was one featuring a boy namedScrappy, created byDick Huemer in 1931. Although Scrappy was a big break for Mintz and was also his most successful creation, Huemer was fired from the Mintz Studio in 1933.^[104] In 1934, Mintz, like most other animation studios at the time, also responded to Disney's use of Technicolor and began making color cartoons through theColor Rhapsodies series;^[105] the series was originally in either Cinecolor or two-strip Technicolor, but moved to three-strip Technicolor after Disney's contract with Technicolor expired in 1935.

With the exception ofHoliday Land (1934) andThe Little Match Girl (1937), both of which were nominated for anAcademy Award), the series failed to garner attention, and by 1939, Mintz was largely indebted to Columbia Pictures. As a result, Mintz sold his studio to Columbia. Columbia renamed the studio toScreen Gems,^[106] and Mintz died by the end of the year. Columbia also sub-contractedUb Iwerks to produce cartoons from his own studio from 1937 until 1940.

Mintz's brother-in-law George Winkler briefly resumed the role of producer before he was succeeded byFrank Tashlin, who had initially worked as a storyman.^[107] Tashlin had significant influence on the studio as he hired a surplus of ex-Disney animators from the 1941Disney animators' strike, laid off most of their initial staff, and directed the shortThe Fox and the Grapes (1941), which unexpectedly created the studio's most popular characters,The Fox and the Crow.

Tashlin maintained his position until he was replaced by Ben Schwalb in 1942.^[108] He continued to act as the studio supervisor until he left abruptly in June, citing a feud with Columbia higher-ups.^[109][110] Tashlin and Schwalb were then replaced byDave Fleischer, who was reportedly much more detached from his animators.^[111] He was later fired and replaced by a revolving door of producers. Critics and animation historians noted the quality of the studio's output had either stagnated or declined as Screen Gems was unable to rebound from its loss of Tashlin. It was argued that Columbia's mismanagement and its inability to find skillful writers and directors were key factors of the decline. Michael Barrier described their work at the time as "imitation Warner Bros."^[111]

The other recurring characters Columbia developed at this time includedWilloughby Wren,Flippy and Flop, Igor Puzzlewitz, Professor Small and Mr. Tall, Tito and his Burrito, and an adaptation ofAl Capp'sLi'l Abner, with which Capp was not pleased due to its oversimplification of his characters.^[112] Columbia remained dissatisfied with the studio's output and eventually closed it in 1946, with a back catalog that lasted until 1949. The Screen Gems name was reused for a television subsidiary the same year.^{[citation needed]}

John Hubley was one of many ex-Disney staffers who were hired by Tashlin to work at the Screen Gems studio, initially working as a writer and later a director with Paul Sommer. While Hubley later admitted to disliking his work for Screen Gems, he had much creative freedom due to Dave Fleischer's detachment from the employees.^[111] The cartoons Hubley and Sommer directed were noted for their greater use of human characters, minimalistic backgrounds and abstract character designs. Much of it was inspired bylimited animation techniquesChuck Jones had established for his cartoonThe Dover Boys, with Hubley and Sommer even going as far as directing a "clone" with the cartoonThe Rocky Road to Ruin.^[113]

Hubley left Screen Gems in 1943 after he was enlisted in theUnited States Armed Forces.^[114] At the same time, he helped to establish a new studio with former Disney animators Stephen Bosustow, Zack Schwartz and David Hilberman, who—like Hubley—had left Disney's company during the animators' strike. It was a newer, smaller animation studio that focused on pursuing Hubley's own vision of trying out newer, more abstract and experimental styles of animation.^[115] Bosustow, Hilberman, and Schwartz named the new studio Industrial Film and Poster Service (IFPS).^[115] Artistically, the studio also used limited animation as its main art style. The first short from the newly formed studio wasSparks and Chips Get the Blitz (1943).^[116] Their second short wasHell-Bent for Election (1944), a cartoon made for the re-election campaign ofFranklin D. Roosevelt. Although these new films were a success, it did not break the boundaries that Hubley and his staffers had hoped. It wasn't until the third short, Robert Cannon'sBrotherhood of Man, that the studio began producing shorts aggressively stylized in contrast to the films of the other studios. Cannon's film even preached a message that was looked down upon—racial tolerance. By 1946, the studio was renamedUnited Productions of America (UPA), and Hilberman and Schwartz had sold their shares of the studio stock to Bosustow.^[115]

In 1948, UPA also found a home for itself atColumbia Pictures and began producing theatrical cartoons for the general public, instead of just using propaganda and military training themes;^[117] UPA also earned itself two Academy Award nominations for new cartoons starringThe Fox and the Crow during its first two years in production. Unlike with Screen Gems, Columbia was much more hands-off in terms of management. From there, the UPA animators began producing a series of cartoons that immediately stood out among the crowded field of mirror-image, copycat cartoons of the other studios. The success of UPA'sMr. Magoo series made the other studios take notice, and when the UPA shortGerald McBoing-Boing (1950) won an Oscar, the effect on Hollywood was immediate and electrifying. The UPA style was markedly different from everything else on movie screens, and audiences responded to the change that UPA offered from the repetition of the usual cat and mouse battles. Mr. Magoo became the studio's most successful cartoon character.^[118]

By 1953, UPA had gained great influence within the industry. The Hollywood cartoon studios gradually moved away from the lush, realistic detail of the 1940s to a more simplistic, less realistic style of animation. By this time, even Disney was attempting to mimic UPA. Disney's 1953 shortsMelody andToot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom in particular were experiments in stylization that followed in the footsteps of the newly formed studio. However, UPA suffered a major blow after John Hubley was fired from the studio during theMcCarthy Era in 1952, due to suspicions of him having ties to Communism;^[118] Steve Bosustow took over, but was not as successful as Hubley, and the studio was eventually sold to Henry Saperstein in 1960.^[118]

In 1959, UPA released1001 Arabian Nights starring Mr. Magoo; however, this was a failure and cost UPA their distribution deal withColumbia Pictures. They tried once more in 1962, when UPA releasedGay Purr-ee with the voice talent ofJudy Garland, this time distributed by Warner Bros. While the film was well received, it too was a financial failure. In 1964, UPA decided to abandon animation and simply become a distribution company, going on to distribute some of theGodzilla movies in America.^{[citation needed]}

Prior to UPA's termination, Columbia struck a ten-year distribution deal withHanna-Barbera, which had just left the freshly shut downMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer Cartoon Studio. This deal was mostly involved with Columbia's television division,Screen Gems, which ironically had borrowed the name from the animation studio. In 1959, Hanna-Barbera began producing its only theatrical series for Columbia,Loopy De Loop. This series was a success and ran until 1965. Hanna-Barbera also produced two feature-length movies for Columbia,Hey There, It's Yogi Bear! andThe Man Called Flintstone. Columbia's ten-year contract with Hanna-Barbera expired in 1967 and was not renewed, thus ending Columbia's association with Hanna-Barbera.^{[citation needed]}

In 1928,Walter Lantz replaced Charles Mintz as producer of Universal Studios cartoons. Walter Lantz's main character at this time wasOswald the Lucky Rabbit, whose earlier cartoons had been produced by both Walt Disney andCharles Mintz. Lantz also started to experiment with color cartoons, and the first one, calledJolly Little Elves, was released in 1934. In 1935, Walter Lantz made his studio independent from Universal Studios, and the studio was now only the distributor of his cartoons, instead of the direct owner.^[119] After seeing Disney's success with their first feature filmSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Lantz planned to produce a full-length animated film based on theAladdin story, starringAbbott and Costello. However, the project was not developed afterMr. Bug Goes to Town failed at the box office.^[120]

By the late 30s, Oswald began to lose popularity. Lantz and his staff worked on several ideas for possible new cartoon characters (among themMeany, Miny, and Moe,Lil' Eightball, andBaby-Face Mouse). The studio eventually settled onAndy Panda, who gained popularity starting with his debut short,Life Begins for Andy Panda (1939).^[121] However successful Andy was, the character's fifth cartoon,Knock Knock (1940), marked the debut of a real breakthrough character:Woody Woodpecker, who became Lantz's most successful creation.^[122]

By the early 1940s, Lantz and animatorAlex Lovy directed cartoons through the use of a singular unit until 1943, whenJames Culhane (an ex-Disney/Fleischer animator who recently had a brief stint at Warner Bros.) took their roles as director, starting with the cartoonPass the Biscuits Mirandy! (1943). Culhane's tenure at Lantz was noted for introducingRussian avant-garde-influenced experimentation, minimalist backgrounds andfast cutting, which helped his shorts stand out from the studio's previous work.^[123] Lantz also introduced a new film series under the nameSwing Symphony, which consisted of musical shorts based on contemporary swing music. Culhane later left Lantz in late-1945 following a pay dispute. Ex-Disney animatorDick Lundy assumed the role as director after Culhane's departure.^[124] Unlike Culhane, Lundy focused much more on sight gags and the animation. Critics noted the animation's jump in quality in the late 1940s, mainly due to Lundy's influence as well as the arrival of more ex-Disney animators, such asEd Love,Fred Moore, and Ken O'Brien.

In 1947, Lantz was negotiating with Universal about his seven-year contract when a merger caused the studio to be reorganized as Universal-International. Universal-International's new management insisted on keeping the merchandising and licensing rights of Lantz's characters. Lantz refused and instead withdrew his cartoons from Universal-International and arranged to have them distributed byUnited Artists between 1947 and 1949. This was also the era whereAndy Panda cartoons were officially discontinued due to the character's waning popularity. In total, Lantz released 12 shorts through United Artists.^{[citation needed]}

Lantz's studio went through severe financial problems during its time with United Artists, which caused him to close the studio in 1949.^[125] It opened again in 1950 with a smaller staff, mainly because Lantz was able to recover from his losses and signed a deal with Universal-International for more Woody Woodpecker cartoons, starting withPuny Express (1951). Woody continued to appear until the early 1970s. Lantz served as the sole director and writer for his own cartoons for two years before those jobs were assumed by animatorDon Patterson and writerHomer Brightman. With MGM reducing its animation studio and Warner Bros. briefly closing its entire animation department in the 1950s, Lantz was able to acquire enough staff to establish a second unit.Paul J. Smith, a Warner Bros. veteran who worked for Lantz in the 1940s, was the director for this new unit.

In 1953, Smith createdChilly Willy, who became another prominent character for the Lantz studio. He was refined byTex Avery (who had left MGM earlier that decade) in the following year. Avery directed four shorts during his time at Walter Lantz Productions, until he left in 1955 over pay disputes. Additional directorial contributions came fromJack Hannah, Sid Marcus, andAlex Lovy, who returned to the studio in the early 1940s. The Lantz studio also created several more recurring characters in this era, such asMaw and Paw,Maggie & Sam,Windy & Breezy,Inspector Willoughby,Hickory, Dickory, and Doc, andThe Beary Family.^{[citation needed]}

Lantz closed his studio's doors for the final time in 1972, saying that continuing to produce shorts would be impossible due to rising production costs. However, Woody Woodpecker remained in the public eye, asThe Woody Woodpecker Show, featuring Lantz cartoons starring Woody and other characters, had debuted on television in the 1957-1958 season. Additional seasons were produced from 1963 to 1964, from 1970 to 1971, and from 1976 to 1977, with the show airing in syndication well into the 1990s. Lantz sold all of theWoody Woodpecker shorts toUniversal, then part ofMCA.^{[citation needed]}

BeforePaul Terry created his own studio, he was employed byBray Productions in 1916, where he created his recognizable character,Farmer Al Falfa. In 1921, he worked atFables Pictures, Inc, founded byKeith-Albee-Orpheum and soon purchased byAmedee J. Van Beuren in 1928. There, he worked on theAesop's Film Fables cartoon series. Van Beuren however became anxious due to the phenomenon of a new film format of pre-synchronized sound in film. Beuren urged Terry to produce films in this format, but he refused, forcing him to fire Terry in 1929.^{[citation needed]}

After losing hisAesop's Film Fables series to Van Beuren Studios in 1929, Terry established a new studio calledTerrytoons. The studio produced 26 cartoons a year forE.W. Hammons'Educational Pictures, which in turn supplied short-subject products to theFox Film Corporation. When Fox Film was later reformed into20th Century Fox in 1935, the studio withdrew support from Educational Pictures and financially backed Terry's studio instead. Educational Pictures folded^{[clarification needed]} in the late 1930s. Terry's cartoons of the thirties were mainly produced in black and white and had very few recurring characters, with the exception ofFarmer Al Falfa, who had appeared in Terry's cartoons since the silent era.^{[citation needed]}

The 1930s and 1940s brought Terry's most popular and successful characters,Gandy Goose beginning in 1938,Mighty Mouse beginning in 1942, andHeckle and Jeckle, a team developed by combining what was originally a husband-and-wife pair of mischievousmagpies from the 1946Farmer Al Falfa cartoonThe Talking Magpies with Terry's notion that twin brothers or look-alikes had comedic possibilities. Other characters includedDinky Duck in 1939, Dimwit the Dog (originally paired with Heckle and Jeckle), and Sourpuss (usually paired with Gandy Goose). Under Terry's ownership, Terrytoons was nominated three times for theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film, forAll Out for V (1942),My Boy, Johnny (1944), andMighty Mouse in Gypsy Life (1945).^{[citation needed]}

Despite its success, the Terrytoons cartoons were known for having the smallest budgets of any major animation studio at the time, as well as being the slowest to adapt to new animation standards. Paul Terry mainly produced cartoons from a business point of view rather than their artistic value; he said, "Let Walt Disney be theTiffany's of the business. I want to be theWoolworth's!"^[126] However, Terrytoons is considered to have been an early stepping stone for several prominent animators, such asJoseph Barbera andArt Babbitt.^{[citation needed]}

Terry retired after selling his company and its backlog toCBS in 1956.^{[citation needed]} CBS continued to operate the studio for the rest of its lifetime, withGene Deitch now in charge as creative director. Terrytoons underwent significant changes under Deitch's leadership. Unlike Terry, Deitch wanted to divert the studio from its strict contemporary format and instead produce cartoons in a more minimalist style, similar toUPA.^{[citation needed]} Terrytoons was also divided between producing theatrical shorts and cartoons for television, as well as having new characters such asTom Terrific, Lariat Sam, Sidney the Elephant, Gaston Le Crayon, John Doormat, and Clint Clobber.^{[citation needed]} Deitch discontinued theMighty Mouse andHeckle and Jeckle cartoons so that focus could be put more on his new characters. TheSidney cartoon,Sidney's Family Tree (1958), earned Terrytoons another Academy Award nomination.^{[citation needed]}

Deitch was fired in 1959 by executive producer William M. Weiss, who reverted a few of Deitch's decisions.Mighty Mouse andHeckle and Jeckle returned to production for some time, alongside the creation of new characters, such asHector Heathcote,Luno the White Stallion,Hashimoto-san,Sad Cat andDeputy Dawg. AnimatorRalph Bakshi also gained prominence, originally starting out as an opaquer (who paints opaque colors on areas drawn on animators'cels byinkers^[127]) and later a director. Bakshi later moved toFamous Studios in 1967. Terrytoons continued operations until the studio declined and closed in 1972.^{[citation needed]}

In 1928, producerAmadee J. Van Beuren boughtKeith-Albee-Orpheum'sFables Pictures Studio and formed a partnership withPaul Terry for the production of theAesop's Film Fables cartoon series. In 1929, Terry left to start his own studio and was replaced by John Foster who took over the animation department, and renamed the studioVan Beuren Studios. Van Beuren continued theAesop's Fables series, created new characters such as Cubby Bear, and unsuccessfully tried a cartoon adaptation ofradioblackface comediansAmos 'n Andy. Other Van Beuren cartoons featuredTom and Jerry (not the cat and mouse, but aMutt and Jeff-like human duo) andOtto Soglow's comic strip characterThe Little King.Frank Tashlin andJoseph Barbera were among animators who worked briefly for the studio during its short life. Van Beuren also sub-contractedHarman-Ising Productions to produce a handful of Cubby Bear cartoons before Harman-Ising contracted withMGM in 1934.^[128][129]

That same year, as other studios were making animated cartoons in Technicolor in response to Disney'sSilly Symphonies cartoon series, Van Beuren Studio abandoned its remaining cartoons and created theRainbow Parade series, which was all color. However, the series was not a success, and by 1936,RKO Pictures, the distributor of Van Beuren's cartoons, ended their contract with them to distribute Disney's cartoons instead.^[130] Van Beuren closed the studio in 1938 and died soon afterwards. Most of its staff either moved toTerrytoons,Fleischer Studios, or other studios in the East or West Coast.^{[citation needed]}

Van Beuren Studios and Fleischer Studios were cited as causing the formation of theScreen Cartoonist's Guild in 1938, with the former studio being noted for its poor treatment of union workers by either Van Beuren himself or directorBurt Gillett.^[131][132] Van Beuren has said to have closed his studio as he refused to accept unionization within his business.^[133]

In 1930, distributorPat Powers convinced Walt Disney animatorUb Iwerks to leave the Disney studio and create his own, believing that Iwerks was responsible for much of Disney's early success. Iwerks opened his studio that year with Powers as his financial backer. Iwerks' studio first made cartoons forMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer, creating characters such asFlip the Frog andWillie Whopper. MGM later ended distributing his cartoons in favor of releasingHarman and Ising's cartoons.^{[citation needed]}

After his stay with MGM, Iwerks' cartoons were distributed by Celebrity Pictures, and Iwerks responded to Disney's use of Technicolor by creating theComiColor Cartoon series, films made in two-strip Cinecolor.^[134] However, by 1936, the Iwerks Studio began to experience financial setbacks after Powers withdrew financial aid.^[135] After animating atWarner Bros. Pictures, creatingGabby Goat and subcontracting cartoons forColumbia Pictures for some time, Iwerks returned to Disney in 1940, where he worked as the head of thespecial effects development division until his death in 1971.^{[citation needed]}

Iwerks left behind his animation studio following his return to Disney. It was soon reorganized as Cartoon Films Ltd, with British-based angel investor Lawson Harris becoming the studio producer and Paul Fennell the director.^[136] The studio's main output was commercial animation,^[137] but it was most known for its specialties for Columbia. One short-lived series,The Changing World, starring journalistRaymond Gram Swing, was planned to have six shorts produced documenting events before and duringWorld War II, but was scrapped after two shorts.^[138] Another short entitledThe Carpenters (1941) was produced and featured the antics of Mr. Teewilliger and his bumbling employees Clancy and Herman. The studio continued to produce animated commercials following their work with Columbia.

Following his termination fromScreen Gems,Dave Fleischer approached Republic Pictures with an elf-like character named Snippy, who first appeared in the 1944 filmTrocadero. He also produced a lengthy animated sequence inThat's My Baby! that same year.^[139] Later in 1946, Republic incorporated a piece of animation byWalter Lantz Productions into its filmSioux City, a western starringGene Autry. The next year, Republic signed a deal with ex-Warner directorBob Clampett to produce a series of shorts starring his latest creation, Charlie Horse. Clampett directed one cartoon entitledIt's a Grand Old Nag (1947) before the company cancelled a potential animated series.^[140]

Later in 1949, Republic started another cartoon series calledJerky Journeys, led by radio comedy writer Leonard L. Levinson. The cartoons were noted for using limited animation, and were described as satirical travelogue films with small budgets.^[141] Art Heinemann was the lead layout designer, Miles Pike provided the special effects and Warner artistsRobert Gribbroek,Peter Alvarado andPaul Julian provided the background paintings.^{[citation needed]}

George Pal was a Hungarian filmmaker who originally produced traditionally animated and puppetry shorts in Europe during the 1930s. Unlike other films that feature puppetry, Pal's puppet shorts used astop motion technique known as "replacement animation" (or the Pal-Doll technique), which uses a series of unique carved wooden puppets for each frame to emulate movement rather than using a single puppet. Some of Pal's earlier shorts were advertisements for specific products, such as thePhilips Radio system inThe Ship of the Ether (1934),Philips Cavalcade (1934) andThe Sleeping Beauty (1939). Pal moved to the United States in 1939 and was contracted by Paramount to produce more stop-motion shorts under the nameMadcap Models, later rebranded asPuppetoons.^{[citation needed]}

Seven Puppetoon films from 1941 to 1947 were nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film, and the series created several recurring characters, such as Jasper, Mr. Strauss, andPunchy & Judy, as well as producing industrial animation for theShell Oil Company. Due to his European origin, Pal refrained from using overtly negative depictions of African Americans in his films. He also produced shorts that commemorated African American culture, such as the shortsJohn Henry and the Inky-Poo (1946) andDates with Duke (1947).^[142]

By 1947, production costs had inflated to nearly $50,000 per short, a price to which Paramount objected. Paramount suggested that Pal should shift his focus from stop-motion to live action films, which he did, effectively ending the Puppetoons series.^[143] He still incorporated stop-motion sequences in his films, such as inThe Great Rupert (1949),Tom Thumb (1958), andThe Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm (1963). Pal's 1950 filmDestination Moon also notably incorporated a traditionally animated sequence byWalter Lantz Productions, featuringWoody Woodpecker. The sequence was produced immediately after Lantz, a close friend of Pal's, reopened his studio that same year.^{[citation needed]}

John Sutherland founded his own studio John Sutherland Productions in 1945 after working inWalt Disney Productions and the US Army with a series of World War II training films.^[144] The studio was mainly known for producing educational and instruction-based animation granted by theHarding College with the help ofAlfred P. Sloan. One of their more notable films isMake Mine Freedom, a 1948 cartoon that was the first in a series of pro-free enterprise films produced by the studio. Sutherland was able to hire prominent artists in the industry such asEmery Hawkins, Phil Roman and a large bulk of ex-Harman-Ising animators to work on his cartoons. Sutherland's studio was able to develop a relationship with MGM, who distributed some of their shorts in the late 1940s and early 50s. Sutherland also dabbled in stop-motion animation, such as producing theDaffy Ditty shorts withLarry Morey forUnited Artists.^[145] He produced 45 films from 1945 until his retirement in 1973.

While not mainly involved in animation,Jerry Fairbanks did work on several projects in the medium. In 1941, Fairbanks produced the successfulSpeaking of Animals short films, based on an idea conceptualized byTex Avery at Warner Bros., and was nominated twice for anAcademy Award for Best Live Action Short Film.^{[citation needed]} In the late 1940s and early 50s, Fairbanks also produced industrial films with occasional animated sequences byManny Gould,Lou Lilly and Anna Osborn. Fairbanks also worked onCrusader Rabbit as a supervising producer.^{[citation needed]}

Founded in 1948 by animatorJay Ward, Jay Ward Productions aired the first cartoon made for television,Crusader Rabbit, and is also remembered forThe Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends (1959–1964), as well as several iconic advertisements, such as those for breakfast cereals. Employing alimited animation style, the success of Jay Ward cartoons laid in their densely packed visual gags and wordplay.^{[citation needed]}

Jam Handy, an Olympic swimmer and water polo player, was known for founding his ownChicago-based studio, The Jam Handy Organization, after working as an industrial representative forBray Productions. Though he is best known for producing films for the auto industry, Handy also dabbled in animation. He made numerous animated shorts featuring Nicky Nome, a character made to advertise theChevrolet forGeneral Motors.^[146]

Perhaps Handy's best known animated short was the1948 adaptation ofRudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, sponsored byMontgomery Ward. It was the first known animated adaptation of Rudolph and was produced and directed byMax Fleischer.^[147]

In 1926, John Robert McCrory, an author andWorld War I soldier turned animator, formed his own animation studio based inNew York after gaining experience fromBray Productions andWalt Disney'sLaugh-O-Gram Studio. He reached a deal withLife magazine to produce a series of shorts featuring his character Mike the Monk, a humanoid monkey character accompanied by his girlfriend.Mike spun off into another series entitledKrazy Kids, which lasted about a year.^{[citation needed]}

Later in 1930,Leon Schlesinger was offering a contract for an animation studio to produce theLooney Tunes series. While animatorsHugh Harman andRudolf Ising pitched a series based on their characterBosko, McCrory attempted to win the offer by hastily producing a cartoon featuring his newest character Buster Bear,^[148] which was originally produced as two or four separate cartoons. In the end, Schlesinger signedHarman and Ising to produce the series, as McCrory's cartoon was not up to standard, as well as the rumor of McCrory brutalizing his staff if deadlines weren't met.^{[149][150][151]} McCrory did not quit the industry, as he later created a short-lived series based onLittle Orphan Annie,Buck Rogers andDick Tracy,^[150] as well as gaining success by redistributing hisBuster Bear andAnnie cartoons through toy projectors and home media. In 1938, the studio was rebranded as Knowledge Builders and continued operations into the 1960s.^{[citation needed]}

Ted Eshbaugh, an American animator/filmmaker, initially created aLos Angeles-based animation studio in the early 1930s after experimenting with early forms of color processing for cartoons in the late 20s. His studio was an early producer of color animation, with shorts such asGoofy Goat (1931, which usedMulticolor) andThe Snowman (1933, which usedTechnicolor). Eshbaugh also producedan adaptation ofL. Frank Baum'sThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz, which was also planned to be a full series.^[152][153] The film was not released due to Technicolor signing an exclusivity deal withDisney around the same time, and Baum's son,Frank Joslyn Baum, rejecting its release due to missed deadlines.^[154]

Eshbaugh later worked at theVan Beuren Studio until 1935, when he founded another studio based inNew York. One of the first productions was a satirical cartoon based onFranklin D. Roosevelt'sNew Deal entitledA Fable of the New Deal, which was made as part of a political campaign to satirize Roosevelt's1936 presidential campaign.^[155] It was reportedly censored after initial screenings when its sponsor,Sentinels of the Republic, found the caricatures representing Roosevelt to be too grotesque.^[156] Other early projects included a color series featuring a character named Peter Panda and a short made forPlanters Nut & Chocolate Co. entitledMr. Peanut and His Family Tree for their1939 World's Fair exhibit.^[157] Eshbaugh also made a few shorts promoting the war effort duringWorld War II, such asSammy Salvage (1943) andCap'n Cub (1945).^[158][159] Eshbaugh's studio continued operations into the late 1950s.

While much of the focus in an animated cartoon is on the visuals, the vocal talents and symphonic scores that accompanied the images were also very important to the animated cartoons' success.^{[original research?]} As motion pictures drew audiences away from their radio sets, it also drew talented actors and vocal impressionists into film and animation.^{[citation needed]}Mel Blanc gave voice to most of Warner Bros.' more popular characters, including Bugs Bunny, Porky Pig (starting in 1937), and Daffy Duck.^{[citation needed]} Other voices and personalities fromvaudeville andradio contributed to the popularity of animated films in the Golden Era. Some of these (generally uncredited) actors includedCliff Edwards (also known asUkulele Ike),Arthur Q. Bryan,Stan Freberg,Bea Benaderet,Bill Thompson,Grace Stafford,Jim Backus,June Foray, andDaws Butler.^{[citation needed]}

Cartoons of this era also included scores played bystudio orchestras.Carl Stalling,Scott Bradley,Sammy Timberg,Winston Sharples,Darrell Calker,Clarence Wheeler, andOliver Wallace composed numerous cartoon soundtracks, creating original material as well as incorporating familiar classical and popular melodies.^{[citation needed]} Many of the early cartoons, particularly those of Disney'sSilly Symphonies series, were built around classical pieces. These cartoons sometimes featured star characters, but many had simple nature themes.^{[citation needed]}

For a great part of the history of Hollywood animation, the production of animated films was an exclusive industry that did not branch off very often into other areas.^{[citation needed]} The various animation studios worked almost exclusively on producing animated cartoons and animated titles for movies. Only occasionally was animation used for other aspects of the movie industry. The low-budgetSuperman serials of the 1940s used animated sequences of Superman flying and performing super-powered feats which were used in the place of live-action special effects, but this was not a common practice.^{[citation needed]}

The exclusivity of animation also resulted in the birth of a sister industry that was used almost exclusively for motion picture special effects:stop motion animation. In spite of their similarities, the two genres of stop-motion and hand-drawn animation rarely came together during the Golden Age of Hollywood. Stop-motion animation made a name for itself with the 1933 box-office hitKing Kong, in which animatorWillis O'Brien defined many of the major stop motion techniques used for the next 50 years. The success ofKing Kong led to a number of other early special effects films, includingMighty Joe Young, which was also animated by O'Brien and helped to start the careers of several animators, includingRay Harryhausen, who came into his own in the 1950s.George Pal was the only stop-motion animator to produce a series of stop-motion animated cartoons for theatrical release, thePuppetoon series for Paramount, some of which were animated by Ray Harryhausen. Pal went on to produce several live-action special effects-laden feature films.^{[citation needed]}

Stop motion animation reached the height of its popularity during the 1950s. The exploding popularity ofscience fiction films led to an exponential development in the field of special effects, and George Pal became the producer of several popular special effects-laden films. Meanwhile, Ray Harryhausen's work on such films asThe Beast from 20,000 Fathoms,Earth vs. the Flying Saucers, andThe Seventh Voyage of Sinbad drew in large crowds and encouraged the development of "realistic" special effects in films. These effects used many of the same techniques as cel animation, but still the two media did not often come together. Stop motion developed to the point that the effects inFantastic Voyage and2001: A Space Odyssey seemed lifelike to an unearthly degree.^{[citation needed]}

Hollywood special effects continued to develop in a manner that largely avoidedcel animation, though several memorable animated sequences were included in live-action feature films of the era. The most famous of these was a scene during the movieAnchors Aweigh, in which actorGene Kelly danced with an animatedJerry Mouse (ofTom and Jerry fame). But except for occasional sequences of this sort, the only real integration of cel animation into live-action films came in the development of animated credit and title sequences.Saul Bass's opening sequences forAlfred Hitchcock's films (includingVertigo,North by Northwest, andPsycho) are highly praised, and inspired several imitators.^{[citation needed]}

The major Hollywood studios contributed greatly to the war effort, and their cartoon studios pitched in as well with various contributions. At the Fleischer studios, Popeye the Sailor joined the Navy and began fightingNazis,Italian Fascists, and "Japs"; while the Warner Bros. studio produced a series ofPrivate Snafu instructional film cartoons especially for viewing by enlisted soldiers. Even Disney was involved in the war effort, producing both satirical comedies such asDer Fuhrer's Face and commentaries such asEducation for Death.

The 1960s saw some creative sparks in the theatrical film medium, in particular fromDePatie–Freleng Enterprises. Their first and most successful project was animating the opening titles for the 1964 film,The Pink Panther, starringPeter Sellers. The film and its animated sequences were so successful thatUnited Artists commissioned the studio to produce a Pink Panther cartoon series. The first short,The Pink Phink, won theAcademy Award for Best Animated Short Film of 1964. The studio also produced other successful cartoon series such asThe Inspector andThe Ant and the Aardvark.

Meanwhile, Chuck Jones, who had been fired from Warner Bros., moved to MGM to produce thirty-four theatricalTom and Jerry cartoons in late 1963. These cartoons were animated in his distinctive style, but they never quite matched the popularity of the Hanna-Barbera originals^{[citation needed]} of the 1940s and 1950s heyday. However, they were more successful than theGene DeitchTom and Jerry shorts, which were produced in Prague, Czechoslovakia,^[160] during 1961 and 1962.

From 1964 to 1967, DePatie–Freleng producedLooney Tunes andMerrie Melodies shorts under contract with Warner Bros. These cartoons can be recognized easily because they use the modern abstract WB logos instead of the famous bullseye WB shield concentric circles. The studio also subcontracted elevenWile E. Coyote and the Road Runner cartoons to Format Films. DePatie–Freleng ceased production ofLooney Tunes (leaving Warner Bros. to produce its own cartoons, which it did from 1967 to 1969) and moved to the San Fernando Valley in 1967 to continue production of theirPink Panther cartoons, producing the final original theatrical cartoon in 1977. The subsequent Pink Panther shorts released between 1978 and 1981 were originally produced for television and then released into theaters. In 1981, DePatie-Freleng Enterprises was purchased byMarvel Comics and renamedMarvel Productions.

In 1946, the animation union of the time negotiated a pay increase of 25%, making cartoons more expensive to produce on a general basis. After the 1948 verdict following theHollywood antitrust case, studios could not guarantee that their cartoons would be booked into theaters, making animation a more risky business. Because of this, less resources were invested in the theatrical shorts, causing a gradual decline. By the beginning of the 1950s, the medium of television was beginning to gain more momentum, and the animation industry began to change as a result. At the head of this change were the tandem ofWilliam Hanna andJoseph Barbera, the creators ofTom and Jerry. The newHanna-Barbera utilized thelimited animation style that UPA had pioneered. With this limited animation, Hanna and Barbera created several characters includingHuckleberry Hound,The Flintstones,Yogi Bear,Top Cat andThe Jetsons. With television's growing popularity, which included theSaturday morning cartoons, a much more significant decline began in moviegoing in the 1960s. To face the competition from television, theaters did what they could to reduce their own costs. One way of doing so was booking features only and avoiding the expenses of shorts, which were considered unnecessary. Those few shorts that found their way to the theaters despite this are often viewed by critics as inferior to their predecessors.

This is a timeline of golden age ofAmerican animation studios' active production of regularly released animated cartoon shorts for theatrical exhibition. Some studios continue to release animated shorts to theaters on an infrequent basis. The colors correspond to the animation studio's associated theatrical distributor.

Among the films from this era, seven animated features from Disney (Snow White,Pinocchio,Fantasia,Dumbo,Bambi,Cinderella andSleeping Beauty) and several animated cartoon shorts (Steamboat Willie, Betty Boop's version ofSnow White,Three Little Pigs,Popeye Meets Sinbad the Sailor,Porky in Wackyland,Gerald McBoing Boing,The Tell-Tale Heart,Duck Amuck andWhat's Opera Doc?) have been inducted into theNational Film Registry.^[161] The aforementioned shorts were also part of animation historian'sJerry Beck's 1994 book survey ofThe 50 Greatest Cartoons.^[162]

The 1988 live-action animated feature filmWho Framed Roger Rabbit honored both the golden age of American animation and theclassical Hollywood cinema.^[163] The film featured cameos of popular cartoon characters from various studios such asWalt Disney,Warner Bros.,Fleischer Studios,MGM,Walter Lantz Productions, andTerrytoons. The film marked the only time that Walt Disney Studios'Mickey Mouse andDonald Duck cross over with Warner Bros. Studios'Bugs Bunny andDaffy Duck, respectively, on screen. The golden age of American animation also influenced certain animated television shows such asAnimaniacs,Tiny Toon Adventures,Pinky and the Brain,Taz-Mania,Duck Dodgers, andLooney Tunes Cartoons,The Ren & Stimpy Show (influenced by classic Warner Bros. cartoons and classic MGM cartoons), the animated series ofBatman andSuperman,Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures (influenced by classic Terrytoons' animated cartoons), andMickey Mouse Works andHouse of Mouse.^{[164][165][166][167][168][169][170][171]}

Likewise, Max Fleischer's aesthetic of the animatedSuperman series influenced the futuristic designs ofBatman Beyond,Loonatics Unleashed, andThe Spectacular Spider-Man,^{[172][173][174]} while theChuck Jones,Maurice Noble,Hanna-Barbera and UPA aesthetics influenced the retro designs of Disney'sKim Possible.^[175] Other television productions influenced by classic theatrical animation include most of the animated series inThe Disney Afternoon programming block (Adventures of the Gummi Bears,DuckTales,Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers,TaleSpin,Darkwing Duck,Goof Troop,Bonkers, andGargoyles).^[176] Other animated characters from Americanmusic videos, such asMC Skat Kat, were directly influenced by the classic cartoon aesthetic.^[177]

Most of theDisney Renaissance movies and the feature filmThe Princess and the Frog were made with similar animation techniques to those of the golden age.^[178] In addition, the 1999 feature filmFantasia 2000 is a direct sequel to the original 1940 feature filmFantasia.^[179] Furthermore,CGI feature films likeCars,Tangled,Frozen,Zootopia,Puss in Boots: The Last Wish andThe Wild Robot, were also inspired by classic animated works.^{[180][181][182][183][184][185]} Disney'sRobin Hood feature (1973) was produced using recycled animation and designs from earlier Walt Disney films, while the short filmMickey's Christmas Carol (1983) was recognized for the return of classic Disney characters to theatrical animation.^[186][187] In fact, the golden age has also influenced other animated short films, such asPaperman,Get a Horse!,Prise de Bec,The Brave Locomotive, and thePudgy and Grunge animated film segment ofMrs. Doubtfire.^{[188][189][190][191]} Though only one minute of the cartoon is shown during the film, Jones and his team animated five minutes of footage. Likewise, the first Winnie the Pooh animated shorts were combined with new ones in the feature filmThe Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh, with Disney's version of Winnie the Pooh becoming an iconic, popular franchise.^[192]

Other animated feature films such asThe Rescuers,The Brave Little Toaster,Oliver & Company,The Land Before Time,All Dogs Go to Heaven,The Nutcracker Prince,Thumbelina,The Swan Princess,Balto,Cats Don't Dance,Anastasia,The King and I andThe Iron Giant, were also influenced by the aesthetics in the animations of the golden age.^{[193][194][195][196][197][198][199][200][201]} This trend of making animations with classic designs was very relevant during therenaissance age of American animation, a period in which the nostalgia market was particularly strong among the audience, starting withThe Great Mouse Detective andAn American Tail.^[202][203]Titan A.E.,Atlantis: The Lost Empire, andLilo & Stitch experimented with combining science fiction with classic animated styles,^{[204][205][206]} whileThe Emperor's New Groove andHome on the Range experimented with classic comedy styles.^[207][208] Due to the rise in popularity of the classic characters in the 1980s and 1990s, Disney produced the animated theatrical short filmsThe Prince and the Pauper andRunaway Brain.^[209][210] Later, children's programs were also developed in the 2000s such asMickey Mouse Clubhouse andBaby Looney Tunes.^[211][212] Likewise,Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers was an attempt to recover classic Disney characters at the height of CGI.^[213]

Chuck Jones andTex Avery's cartoons initially served as the main inspiration for the development of various video game franchises:Dynamite Düx,Bubsy,Gex,Crash Bandicoot,Spyro the Dragon,Jak and Daxter,Ratchet & Clank,Ty the Tasmanian Tiger, andKao the Kangaroo,^{[214][215][216][217][218][219][220]} as well as heavily influencing the designs andslapstick humor of the originalIce Age,Madagascar andKung Fu Panda trilogies.^{[221][222][223]} Similarly,Banjo-Kazooie,Yooka-Laylee, andLucky's Tale were made to attract a wide audience and with reference to Walter Lantz and Walt Disney's classic cartoons,^{[224][225][226]} while the video game franchiseSly Cooper was influenced by the designs of classiccel animated films.^[227] Additionally, Disney's period during thesilent era and the golden age influenced the development of the video gamesEpic Mickey andEpic Mickey 2: The Power of Two.^[228] Furthermore, many classic Disney characters appear as protagonists in the video game franchiseKingdom Hearts.^[229] In addition, the 2017 video gameCuphead, the 2023 video gameEnchanted Portals, the 2017 video gameBendy and the Ink Machine, and the 2022interactive filmCat Burglar feature a classic animated art style influenced by the works of Walt Disney, Max Fleischer, and Tex Avery from this period.^{[230][231][232][233]}

The golden age of American animation, especiallyWalt Disney's cartoons, was very influential around the world, particularly:

• In Belgium, Walt Disney's cartoons served as inspiration forMorris in the designs of the Franco-Belgian comicLucky Luke.^[234]
• In China, theWan brothers animators were influenced by Disney and Fleischer animated feature films in makingPrincess Iron Fan (1941) andHavoc in Heaven (1961).^[235][236]
• In Egypt, Walt Disney's cartoons served as inspiration forThe Frenkel Brothers, to make a series of cartoons entitledMish-Mish Effendi.
• In France, the animatorJean Image was influenced by the theatrical cartoons of this period.^[237] Likewise,Paul Grimault was influenced by Disney's animated feature films in making hismagnum opusThe King and the Mockingbird (first released in 1952 and starringPeter Ustinov as the mockingbird; in 1980 Grimault released his own version after acquiring the rights to the film).^[238] the French animated slapstick television cartoon show seriesOggy and the Cockroaches was heavily inspired and heavily influenced byTom and Jerry, usingsilent humour andslapstick comedy to drive the plot of most episodes.^[239][240]
• In Germany, animatorHans Fischerkoesen was influenced by the theatrical cartoons of this period.^[241] Likewise, Walt Disney's cartoons served as inspiration forRolf Kauka in German comics, especially withFix and Foxi, and the 1973 feature filmOnce Upon a Time.^[242]
• In Italy, the uncompleted animated feature filmThe Adventures of Pinocchio (1936) almost managed to compete with Walt Disney's animated productions.^[243] On the other hand,Bruno Bozzetto's 1976 filmAllegro non troppo spoofsFantasia.^[244][245]
• In Japan, the artistOsamu Tezuka was greatly influenced by Walt Disney's animation alongside the Fleischers. This allowed him to make the drawings ofKimba the White Lion,Astro Boy, andPrincess Knight.^[246] Likewise, Walt Disney's cartoons served as inspiration forShigeru Miyamoto andYuji Uekawa, thus developing theSuper Mario franchise and the video gameBilly Hatcher.^[247][248] Similarly,Naoto Ohshima was inspired by the mixed designs ofFelix the Cat andMickey Mouse to create the video game characterSonic the Hedgehog.^[249] In addition,Popeye andKing Kong served as inspiration in making the 1981 arcade video gameDonkey Kong,^[250] while theRhedosaurus served as inspiration forIshirō Honda in the production of the 1954 Japanese feature filmGodzilla, developing thekaiju film genre during theAtomic Age.^[251][252] Furthermore,Pac-Man's playful chase dynamic was inspired by the back-and-forth antics seen in Tom and Jerry, and the Pac-Man ghosts were roughly inspired byCasper the Friendly Ghost, as stated by creatorToru Iwatani.^[253]
• In Russia, the animatorLev Atamanov was influenced by Disney's animated feature films in makingThe Snow Queen (1957).^[254]
• In Spain, the golden age influenced animators such asArturo Moreno, José María Blay, Cruz Delgado,Sergio Pablos or theCifesa studio. Highlighting feature films:Garbancito de la Mancha (1945),Alegres vacaciones (1948),Érase una vez... (1950),Los sueños de Tay-Pi (1952),Mágica aventura (1973),Los viajes de Gulliver (1983) andKlaus (2019), as well as the popular animated adaptations ofDon Quixote (1979) andLos Trotamúsicos (1989).^{[255][256][257][258]} Likewise, Walt Disney's cartoons served as inspiration forJosé Sanchis Grau in Spanish comics, especially withEl Soldadito Pepe andPumby.^[259]
• In the United Kingdom, animated short films about war propaganda influenced the production of the feature filmAnimal Farm (1954),^[260] while Ray Harryhausen's stop motion inspiredFirst Men in the Moon (1964),One Million Years B.C. (1966) andClash of the Titans (1981).^[261][262]

• History of animation
• Animated cartoon
• Animation
• Cartoon
• List of animation shorts
• Animation in the United States during the silent era
• Golden Age of Comic Books
• Golden Age of Hollywood
• Golden Age of Radio
• Golden Age of Television
• Rubber hose animation (First American Animated style from the late-1920s to the late-1930s)
• The 50 Greatest Cartoons - a book featuring various animated cartoons from the golden age
• Who Framed Roger Rabbit - An 1988 live-action animated film heavily inspired by the Golden age of American animation
• Toon In with Me - theMeTV program featuring golden age cartoons

• Barrier, Michael (1999).Hollywood Cartoons: American Animation in Its Golden Age. Oxford University Press.ISBN 9780198020790.
• Maltin, Leonard (1987):Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons. Penguin Books.
• Ryfle, Steve; Godziszewski, Ed (2017).Ishiro Honda: A Life in Film, from Godzilla to Kurosawa.Wesleyan University Press.ISBN 9780819570871.
• Solomon, Charles (1994):The History of Animation: Enchanted Drawings. Outlet Books Company.

• 20th century in animation
• History of animation in the United States
• Golden ages (metaphor)
• Nostalgia in the United States
• 1920s in animation
• 1930s in animation
• 1940s in animation
• 1950s in animation
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• 1928 establishments in the United States
• 1969 disestablishments in the United States

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