| Golden age hip hop | |
|---|---|
| Stylistic origins | |
| Cultural origins | Mid-to-late 1980s,The Bronx,New York City |
| Typical instruments | |
| Derivative forms | |
| Local scenes | |
| South Bronx,Queens,Brooklyn,Harlem,Long Island | |
Golden age hip-hop refers tohip-hop music created from roughly the mid-1980s to mid-1990s,[1][2][3][4] preceding the genre's advances in thenew-school era. The golden age is characterized by its diversity, quality, innovation and influence on overall hip-hop,[5][6][7][8][9] and is associated with the development and eventual mainstream success of hip-hop.[10] There were various types of subject matter, while the music wasexperimental and thesampling from old records was eclectic.[11]
The artists most often associated with the period areLL Cool J,Slick Rick,Ultramagnetic MCs,[12] theJungle Brothers,[13]Run-DMC,Public Enemy,Beastie Boys,KRS-One,DJ Jazzy Jeff & the Fresh Prince,Eric B. & Rakim,De La Soul,Big Daddy Kane,EPMD,Biz Markie,[10]Salt-N-Pepa,[10]Queen Latifah,[10]Gang Starr, andA Tribe Called Quest. Releases by these acts co-existed in this period with earlygangsta rap artists such asSchoolly D,Ice-T,Geto Boys,N.W.A, thesex raps of2 Live Crew andToo Short, andparty-oriented music by acts such asthe Fat Boys,MC Hammer, andVanilla Ice.[14][15] A majority of these artists and musicians originated from theNew York metropolitan area.[16]
The golden age is noted for its innovation – a time "when it seemed that every new single reinvented the genre",[5] according toRolling Stone. Referring to "hip-hop in its golden age",[17]Spin's editor-in-chief Sia Michel said, "there were so many important, groundbreaking albums coming out right about that time",[17] andMTV'sSway Calloway added: "The thing that made that era so great is that nothing was contrived. Everything was still being discovered and everything was still innovative and new".[18] Writer William Jelani Cobb said, "what made the era they inaugurated worthy of the termgolden was the sheer number of stylistic innovations that came into existence... in these golden years, a critical mass of mic prodigies were literally creating themselves and their art form at the same time".[19]
The termgolden age hip hop frames the late 1980s in mainstream hip hop,[20] said to be characterized by its diversity, quality, innovation and influence,[21] and associated withPublic Enemy,KRS-One and hisBoogie Down Productions,Eric B. & Rakim,Ultramagnetic MCs,[22][23]De La Soul,A Tribe Called Quest, and theJungle Brothers[24] due to their themes ofAfrocentricity and political militancy, their experimental music, and their eclecticsampling.[25] This same period is sometimes referred to as "mid-school" or a "middle school" in hip hop, the phrase covering acts such asGang Starr,the UMC's,Main Source,Lord Finesse,EPMD,Just Ice,Stetsasonic, True Mathematics, andMantronix.[26][27][28]
The innovations ofRun-DMC,LL Cool J,Beastie Boys, andnew-school producers such as Larry Smith, andRick Rubin ofDef Jam Recordings, were quickly advanced on byMarley Marl and hisJuice Crew MCs, Boogie Down Productions, Public Enemy, and Eric B. & Rakim. Hip hop production became denser, rhymes and beats faster, as thedrum machine was augmented with thesampler technology.[29]Rakim took lyrics about the art of rapping to new heights, while KRS-One andChuck D pushed "message rap" towards black activism.[30]Native Tongues artists' inclusive, sample-crowded music accompanied their positivity, Afrocentricity and playful energy.
During the golden age of hip hop, samples were heavily used.[31] The ability to sample different beats, riffs and patterns from a wide variety of sources gave birth to a new breed of producers and DJs who did not necessarily need formal musical training or instruments, just a good ear for sound collages.[32] These samples were derived from a number of genres, ranging fromjazz,funk andsoul torock and roll. For example,Paul's Boutique,Beastie Boys' second studio album, drew from over 200 individual samples, 24 of which were featured on the last track of the album.[31] Samples and sound bites were not limited to just music.RZA of theWu-Tang Clan, a hip hop collective formed in the 1990s, sampled sound clips from his own collection of 1970s kung-fu films to bolster and frame the group'sgritty lyrical content. Many of the sample-laden albums released during this time would not be able to receive legal clearance today.[33][34]
The era also provided some of the greatest advances inrapping technique.Kool G Rap, referring to the golden age in the bookHow to Rap said, "that era bred rappers like aBig Daddy Kane, a KRS-One, a Rakim, a Chuck D... their rapping capability and ability – these dudes were phenomenal".[35][36] Many of hip hop's biggest artists were also at their creative peak.AllMusic said the golden age "witnessed the best recordings from some of the biggest rappers in the genre's history... overwhelmingly based inNew York City, golden age rap is characterized byskeletal beats, samples cribbed fromhard rock or soul tracks, and tough dis raps... rhymers like PE's Chuck D, Big Daddy Kane, KRS-One, Rakim, and LL Cool J basically invented the complex wordplay and lyrical kung-fu of later hip-hop".[1]
In addition to lyrical self-glorification, hip hop was also used as a form of social protest.[37] Lyrical content from the era often drew attention to a variety of social issues including Afrocentric living, drug use, crime and violence, religion, culture, the state of the American economy, and the modern man's struggle.Conscious andpolitical hip hop tracks of the time were a response to the effects of American capitalism and former President Reagan's conservative political economy. According to Tricia Rose, "In rap, relationships between black cultural practice, social and economic conditions, technology, sexual and racial politics, and the institution policing of the popular terrain are complex and in constant motion. Even though hip hop was used as a mechanism for different social issues it was still very complex with issues within the movement itself.[38]
There was also often an emphasis onblack nationalism.[39][40] Hip hop scholarMichael Eric Dyson stated, "during the golden age of hip hop, from 1987 to 1993, Afrocentric and black nationalist rap were prominent",[41] and critic Scott Thill described the time as "the golden age of hip hop, the late '80s and early '90s when the form most capably fused the militancy of itsBlack Panther andWatts Prophets forebears with the wide-open cultural experimentalism of De La Soul and others".[42] Stylistic variety was also prominent;MSNBC said that in the golden age, "rappers had an individual sound that was dictated by their region and their communities, not by a marketing strategist,"[6] theVillage Voice referred to the golden age's "eclecticism",[43] and Ben Duinker and Denis Martin ofEmpirical Musicology Review wrote that "The constant flow of new, boundary-pushing Golden Age album releases exemplifies this era's unprecedented stylistic fluidity."[4]
The specific time period that the golden age covers varies among different sources and may overlap with other subcurrents in hip hop. AllMusic writes, "Hip-hop's golden age is bookended by the commercial breakthrough of Run-D.M.C. in 1986 and the explosion of predominantlyWest Coast gangsta rap withN.W.A in the late 80s andDr. Dre andSnoop Doggy Dogg in 1993."[1]The New York Times described hip-hop's golden age as the "late 1980s and early 90s".[44] Ed Simons ofthe Chemical Brothers said, "there was that golden age of hip-hop in the early 90s when theJungle Brothers madeStraight Out the Jungle andDe La Soul made3 Feet High and Rising"[45] (though these records were in fact made in 1988 and 1989 respectively).MSNBC called the 1980s the "Golden Age" of hip-hop music.[6]The Guardian states, "The golden age of hip-hop, from 1986 to 1993, gave the world an amazing number of great records," and also describes the period in November 1993, when A Tribe Called Quest and Wu-Tang Clan released albums, as "The Next Golden age."[46][47]
The golden age is described by scholar Mickey Hess as "circa 1986-1994."[3]Carl Stoffers ofNew York Daily News describes the golden age as "spanning from approximately 1986 to 1997."[2] Brad Callas ofMedium.com writes that "Hip-Hop's Golden Age is loosely bookended by the genre's commercial breakthrough in the late 1980s and the back-to-back deaths of 2Pac and Biggie in the late 1990s."[48] In their article "In Search of the Golden Age Hip-Hop Sound", music theorists Ben Duinker and Denis Martin ofEmpirical Musicology Review use "the 11 years between and including 1986 and 1996 as chronological boundaries" to define the golden age, bookended by the releases ofRaising Hell andLicense to Ill [sic] and the deaths ofTupac Shakur andthe Notorious B.I.G.[4] Will Lavin ofuDiscover Music states "It's generally accepted that the Golden Age occurred from the mid '80s [to] mid '90s; it was then that all the elements of the culture – breaking, graffiti art and DJing – broke cover to enter the mainstream."[49]
Music critic Tony Green, in the bookClassic Material, refers to the two-year period 1993–1994 as "a second Golden Age" that saw influential, high-quality albums using elements of past classicism –drum machines (Roland TR-808[50]), drumsamplers (Akai MPC60,[51]E-mu SP-1200),turntable scratches, references toold-school hip-hop hits, and "tongue-twisting triplet verbalisms" – while making clear thatnew directions were being taken. Green lists as examples the Wu-Tang Clan'sEnter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers),Nas'sIllmatic, De La Soul's 1993 releaseBuhloone Mindstate, Snoop Doggy Dogg'sDoggystyle, A Tribe Called Quest's third albumMidnight Marauders andOutkast'sSouthernplayalisticadillacmuzik.[7] Dart Adams ofFestival Peak described this "2nd Golden Era" as spanning 1992 to 1996, and cites the release ofPuff Daddy andMase's "Can't Nobody Hold Me Down" in 1997 as being the start of mainstream rap's "Jiggy Era".[52]
According to copyright, music and pop culture scholars Kembrew Mcleod and Peter DiCola, the golden age of hip-hopsampling spans from 1987 to 1992. Artists and record labels were not yet aware of the permanence of hip-hop culture in mainstream media, and did not yet accept it as a legitimate institution. They believe the ruling made inGrand Upright Music, Ltd. v. Warner Bros. Records Inc. marked the end of the golden age of hip hop and its sampling practices.[34]
Notable hip-hop producer and innovator,Marley Marl, formed theJuice Crew hip-hop collective. Marl also foundedCold Chillin' Records and assembled various acts, includingMC Shan, Big Daddy Kane,Biz Markie,Roxanne Shanté,Kool G Rap & DJ Polo, andMasta Ace.[53] His Juice Crew collective was an important force in ushering rap's golden age, with advances in lyrical technique, distinctive personalities of emerging artists like Biz Markie and Big Daddy Kane, and attainingcrossover commercial success for hip-hop music.[53] Marley Marl's first production was an "answer record" to "Sucker MCs" in 1983 entitled "Sucker DJs" by Dimples D. Soon after came 14-year-old Roxanne Shanté's answer toUTFO's "Roxanne Roxanne", "Roxanne's Revenge" (1985), sparking off the huge wave of answer records known as theRoxanne Wars.[53] More disses (insults intended to show disrespect) from Shanté followed: "Bite This" (1985), "Queen of Rox" (1985), introducing Biz Markie on "Def Fresh Crew" (1986), "Payback" (1987), and "Have a Nice Day" (1987).[54]
Shante's "Have a Nice Day" had aimed some barbs at the principal two members of a new group from the Bronx called Boogie Down Productions (BDP): "Now KRS-One you should go on vacation with that name soundin' like a wack radio station, and as for Scott La Rock, you should be ashamed, whenT La Rock said "It's Yours", he didn't mean his name". Boogie Down Productions had manufactured a disagreement with the Juice Crew'sMC Shan, releasing "South Bronx" and "The Bridge Is Over" in reply to his "The Bridge" and "Kill That Noise" respectively.[55] KRS-One considered Run-DMC the epitome of rap music in 1984 and had begun to rap following their lead.[56] However, he has also said that BDP's approach reflected a feeling that the early innovators like Run-DMC and LL Cool J were by 1986 tainted by commercial success and out of touch with the streets.[57]
Boogie Down's first albumCriminal Minded (1987) contained adancehall reggae influence and had KRS-One imitating the Beatles' "Hey Jude" on the title track. It also contained two tales of grim street life, yet played for callous laughs: "The P Is Free", in which KRS speaks of throwing out his girl who wantscrack cocaine in exchange for sex, and "9mm Goes Bang", in which he shoots a drug dealer then cheerfully sings "la la la la la la". Songs like these presaged the rise of an underground that matched violent lyrics to the hardcoredrum machine tracks of the new-school. The cover ofCriminal Minded was a further reflection of a move towards this sort of radical image, depicting the group in a half-light, holding firearms.[58] The next albumBy All Means Necessary (1988) left that element behind for political radicalism following the murder ofScott La Rock, with its title and cover alluding toMalcolm X. KRS-One became involved with theStop the Violence Movement at this time. Boogie Down Productions, along with Run-DMC and Public Enemy, associated the new-school as rap music with a strong message.[59]
Eric B. & Rakim appeared with the Marley Marl produced "Eric B. Is President" and "My Melody" on Zakia Records in 1986. Both tracks appeared onPaid in Full (1987). Just as Boogie Down Productions had, the pair reflected changes in street life on their debut's cover, which depicted the two wearing large gold chains and surrounded by money. LikeCriminal Minded, the sampling prevalent in the album cemented James Brown's status as a hip hop source,[60] while Rakim's allusions showed the growing influence of mystic Islam-offshootThe Nation of Gods and Earths in hip-hop. The music was minimalist, austerely so, with many writers noting that coupled with Rakim's precise, logical style, the effect was almost one of scientific rigour. The group followedPaid in Full withFollow the Leader (1988),Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em (1990) andDon't Sweat the Technique (1992).
Rakim is generally regarded as the most cutting-edge of the MCs of the golden age.[61] Jess Harvell inPitchfork in 2005 wrote that "Rakim's innovation was applying a patina of intellectual detachment to rap's most sacred cause: talking shit about how you're a better rapper than everyone else."[62]Robert Christgau in theVillage Voice in 1990 wrote of Rakim's style as "calm, confident, clear. On their third album, as on their phase-shifting 1986 debut," he continues, "Eric B.'s samples truly are beats, designed to accentuate the natural music of an idealized black man's voice."[63] Looking back at the late 1980s inRolling Stone in 1997, Ed Moralez describes Rakim as "the new-school MC of the moment, using a smooth baritone to become the jazz soloist of mystic Afrocentric rap."[64]
Public Enemy, having been reluctantly convinced to sign to a record label, releasedYo! Bum Rush the Show on Def Jam in 1987.[65] It debuted the Public Enemy logo, a hatted b-boy in a sniper's crosshairs, and was replete with battle rhymes ("Miuzi Weighs a Ton", "Public Enemy #1"), social-political fare ("Rightstarter (Message to a Black Man)") and anti-crack messages ("Megablast").[65] The album was a critical and commercial success, particularly in Europe, unusually so for a hip hop album at that time.[66]Yo! Bum Rush the Show had been recorded on the heels of Run-DMC'sRaising Hell, but was held back by Def Jam in order for them to concentrate on releasing and promoting the Beastie Boys'Licensed to Ill.[65] Chuck D of Public Enemy felt that by the time their first record was released, Boogie Down Productions and Rakim had already changed the landscape for how an MC could rap.[65] Public Enemy were already recording their second albumIt Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back (1988) whenBum Rush the Show hit stores.[65]
The underground sound centered on urban violence, that was to becomegangsta rap, first developedon the East Coast. Philadelphia'sSchoolly D self-released "Gangsta Boogie" in 1984, and "P.S.K. What Does It Mean?"/"Gucci Time" in 1985, leading toSaturday Night (Schoolly D, 1986,Jive, 1987).[67] TheWest Coast, which soon became the home of gangsta rap, hadToddy Tee's influentialBatteram mixtape in 1985,[68] andIce-T's "Six in the Morning" in 1986[69] beforeN.W.A's first records, leading to the hugely successfulStraight Outta Compton in 1989.[70]
Developments in New York hip-hop were represented by the Native Tongues groups—the Jungle Brothers, De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest,Queen Latifah,Chi-Ali, andMonie Love—along with fellow travellers likeLeaders of the New School,KMD, andBrand Nubian.[71][72][73] Their music focused on positive lyricism and Afrocentricity, in contrast to the aggressive, macho posturing of gangsta rap. De La Soul's debut sampled artists fromthe Turtles toSteely Dan, while A Tribe Called Quest matched tough beats to mellow jazz samples and playful, thoughtful raps.[73]
This lawsuit was known for effectively ending the "Wild West" period for sampling during the golden age of hip hop.[74] In 1991,Gilbert O'Sullivan's song publisher sued Warner Brothers Records over the use of the original inBiz Markie's song "Alone Again." No copyright case precedents were cited in the ruling of the final verdict, and the presiding judge's opinion was prefaced with the words "Thou Shalt not Steal."[75]
1960s pop bandthe Turtles filed a lawsuit in 1989 against hip hop groupDe La Soul for the uncleared use of a sampled element derived from their original 1968 track "You Showed Me." The lawsuit was settled out of court for a reported $1.7 million, though group members later claimed that the actual payout was significantly less.[75]
chuck d message rap.
