 A 1733 map ofGolconda Sultanate—the termGolconda diamond became synonymous to the diamonds of good quality.[1] | |
| Color | Typically colorless; less often blue, translucent white, and pink. |
|---|---|
| Cut | Antique cushion |
| Country of origin | India |
| Mine of origin | Kollur mine,Paritala and mines ofGodavari delta |
Golconda diamonds are mined in the Godavari-Krishna delta region ofAndhra Pradesh, India.Golconda Fort in the western part of modern-dayHyderabad was a seat of theGolconda Sultanate and became an important centre fordiamond enhancement,lapidary, and trading. Golconda diamonds are graded asType IIa, are formed of purecarbon, are devoid ofnitrogen, and are large withhigh clarity. They are often described as diamonds of thefirst water, making them among history's most-celebrated diamonds. The phrase "Golconda diamond" became synonymous with diamonds of incomparable quality.
For 2,000 years, Golconda diamonds were the only known fine diamonds. Due to centuries of excessive mining, their production was exhausted by 1830, andgemologists and traders have classified Golconda diamonds as antique, rare and precious. Famous Golconda diamonds include the colourlessKoh-i-Noor, theNassak Diamond, the blueHope Diamond, theIdol's Eye, the pinkDaria-i-Noor, the whiteRegent Diamond, theDresden Green Diamond, and the colourlessOrlov Diamond, as well as now-untraceable diamonds such as the yellowFlorentine Diamond, theAkbar Shah, theNizam Diamond, and theGreat Mogul Diamond.
TheGolconda diamond industry was at its peak from the 16th to 18th centuries when 23 mines, of whichKollur Mine was the most active, operated in the region and 30,000 people at a time worked in one mine.[A] The output from all of the mines in Golconda is estimated to be around 10,000,000 carats (2.0 t). In 2015,Osmania University in collaboration withGeological Survey of India discovered potential new sites fordiamond mining in the region, though as of 2022[update] mining had not started.
Several literary legends were inspired by Golconda diamonds; these includeSindbad the Sailor's valley of diamonds, the gem lore ofMarco Polo, and the theme ofRussell Conwell's inspirational lecture "Acres of Diamonds". According to folklore, some Golconda diamonds are cursed; these impart good luck to their owners or have mystical powers while others were worn astalismans. In 2013, thePrincie Diamond from theJewels of the Nizams was auctioned forUS$39.3 million—the highest-recorded auction price for Golconda Diamonds and the world record forUS$1.1 million percarat. Ina heist in 2019, theDresden White Diamond was stolen along with jewels worthUS$1.2 billion.
The Golconda diamondiferous region is located in theSouthern Indian peninsular shield,[2] which was formed during the process ofproterozoic andInsular India.[3] The region is spread over 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi), within the sediments of theKrishna-Pennarriver basin andDeccan Traps,[2] and contains 120 out of the 150kimberlite pipes in India.[4] Thoughkimberlite andlamproite are the primary rock source,conglomerate andplacers had yielded the majority of the region's diamonds.[2] TheGeological Survey of India has categorized kimberlite pipes ofsouthern India into clustersSouthern Wajrakarur kimberlite,Northern Narayanpet kimberlite, andCentral Raichur kimberlite of these, theTimmasamudram kimberlite cluster—a part of Southern Wajrakarur kimberlite—is significant.[3][5]
Mediaeval records from Europe and the Middle East showIndia's importance as a source of high-quality diamonds. According tojewelleryhistorianJack Ogden, these records include those ofPliny the Elder,Marco Polo,Muhammed al-Idrisi,Ahmad al-Tifashi, and others from before the 12th century. The records state India produced diamonds with "which the gems were engraved".[6][7][8] Ancient texts ofBuddhists,Hindus, andJains such as theArthashastra (2nd century BCE – 4th century CE), theRatna Pariksha, and thePuranas refer to cities and regions of India that produced diamonds.[9][10]Roman historian Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) in hisencyclopedia described the demand and fondness of Roman imperial women for the diamonds of South India.[11][10] The tales ofSinbad the Sailor's voyages, which were written during the reign of theAbbasid CaliphHarun al-Rashid (786–809 CE), describe the Valley of the Diamonds that is part of the folk tales collectionOne Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights,Alf Laila Wa Laila, orAlif Laila). These regional descriptions have the same features ofDeccan in general and the Golconda region in particular.[12][13] These names are difficult to link to modern geographic names.[9]
Until the 17th century, mines in this region were the only source of diamonds on Earth.[10][14][15] According to the records of 18th-and-19th-centurygeologists,researchers, and traders, the region south of theKurnool district near theKrishna River valley in and aroundNTR district,Palnadu, andGuntur; theGodavari delta in Rampachodavaram and Bhadrachalam; north-easternMadhya Pradesh; easternChhattisgarh; westernJharkhand; and north-westernOdisha are possible historical sources of diamond.[9][16] The best-known region among these was historically known asTelingana orTilling, and was renamed Golconda during theDeccan sultanates period and generally known as the Godavari delta.[17] As European travellers and traders increasingly engaged intrading with producers of this region, the region's diamonds came to be referred to as "Golconda diamonds".[14][18]
The peak period of Golconda diamond mining was the 16th-to-18th centuries, when the region was controlled by theGolconda Sultanate and theNizams of Hyderabad.[17][19][20] The mines were leased under the supervision of regional governors, of whom prominent 17th-century diamond traderMir Jumla became theGrand vizier (Prime Minister) of the Golconda Sultanate. He established a network of diamond merchants in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia—up to China and theMalay Archipelago.[21][22][23]Shantidas Jhaveri was another 17th-century diamond trader.[24]
Golconda diamonds were mined fromalluvial soils alongside river beds.[25] Mines were usually up to 4 fathoms (7.3 m; 24 ft) deep.[24][26] When mining reachedgroundwater, digging was halted. Stony substances were then collected for assortment and examined for diamonds.[27] Raw diamonds from the mines were typically transported to Golconda—now the western part ofHyderabad—[28] for skilled lapidary, enhancement, further evaluation, and sale.[17][19][20] The art ofmacle, which is a form of rough diamond that is used to produce jewellery, was first developed in the Golconda region.[29] Of the 38 diamond mines in India at the time, 23 were located in the Golconda Sultanate, of whichKollur Mine was prominent and employed 60,000 workers at one time.[19][30] Most of these mines were fully active until 1830 but were gradually abandoned as they became either submerged by the backwaters of thePulichintala irrigation dam or became depleted. Diamond mining in the region gradually declined and finally officially closed.[31][32]
In 2015, the Centre of Exploration Geophysics ofOsmania University and theGeological Survey of India (GSI) conducted research that identified three zones that contain 21 potential new diamond-mining sites near the delta of the Krishna andBhima rivers, and in the beds of the Krishna,Tungabhadra andPenna rivers. According to the research, the sites containvolcanic pipes that probably bear kimberlite and possibly diamonds.[33][34] According toOutlook India, in 2022, some companies applied for mining rights in the region of Andhra Pradesh, soon after theNational Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) discovered diamond deposits in the seven districts of the state.[4]
The Golconda region was a major trading centre and the source of the world's most-famous diamonds.[14] Until the end of the 19th century, it was the primary source of the finest and largest diamonds in the world, making the name "Golconda diamond" synonymous with high-quality diamonds.[17][19][30][35] It has been estimated the Golconda region traded around 10 millioncarats of diamonds.[36] A unit of measurement for Golconda diamonds was theRatti (7⁄8 of acarat),[37] and the most-common currency was the GolcondaPagoda, which was also called Hun.[38][39][40]
Golconda had been trading diamonds with European kingdoms since at least the days ofMarco Polo (1254–1324).[14] During the 1420s,Niccolò de' Conti, a prominent Italian traveller and merchant who lived in India, had a detailed account of diamond valleys in the Golconda region.[13] The 15th-centuryPortuguese discovery of the sea route to India and the 16th-century Golconda Sultanate's new port atMachilipatnam increased the production and trade of Golconda diamonds. The emergence of demand for Golconda diamonds led to the exploration and discoveries of mines in the region that produced brilliant diamonds.[38][41][42][43][44]
In the 17th century, under the Golconda Sultanate, when new mines were discovered and leased to the miners, an agreement called "Qaul" would be signed under the supervision of regional governors, according to which, for employing 100 workers, miners would pay four pagodas per day, and monthly rent was based on the strength of the workers on the mining site. Provisions were supplied only by the governor with 50 percent extra excise duty. Large diamonds from the site were exclusively reserved for the rulers and to be sold with concessions.[38]Bania andKhatri castes—merchant and trading communities in India—held most of mines. In the early 1600s, some Dutch miners of theDutch East India Company were granted mining rights.[38][45] The 17th-century French explorerJean-Baptiste Tavernier reported he was "permitted to examine" the egg-shaped Great Moghul diamond, which is now lost and said to have been cut into smaller diamonds. He reported having seen a flat diamond called theGreat Table diamond in Golconda.Jean de Thévenot,François Bernier or Antoine Destremau were French traders in Golconda diamonds.[19][46][47]
In 1621 and 1622, when the Golconda rulers learned about the demand for Golconda diamonds in Europe, they seized all of the mines and temporarily halted mining to increase the price, which then doubled. In 1627, high prices led Dutch traders to stop purchasing, and the BritishEast India Company brought investments and purchased the diamonds.[38] The company's monopoly continued alongside indigenous traders such as Mir Jumla II,Virji Vora, andKasi Veranna until the mines became depleted in the 1830s. Most of the impoverished governments and princely rulers were removed from power, forcing them sell their jewels—including Golconda diamonds—which were later auctioned. Due to their royal lineage, mystical tales, and advertising campaigns by companies, Golconda diamonds became the global status reference.[48]
Paradesi Jews ofMadras (nowChennai) traded in Golconda diamonds, precious stones, and corals. They had very good relations with the rulers ofGolkonda because they maintained trade connections to some foreign countries (e.g.Ottoman Empire, Europe), and their language skills were useful. Although the Sephardim spokeLadino (i.e. Judeo-Spanish), in India they learnedTamil andKonkani as well asJudeo-Malayalam from the Cochin Jews, also known asMalabar Jews.[49][full citation needed]
Jacques de Paiva (Jaime Paiva)Paradesi Jews, established good relations withEast India Company (EIC) and those in power, which enabled him to buy several mines to source Golconda diamonds. Through his efforts, Jews were permitted to live and trade Golconda diamonds and corals within Fort St. George.[50]De Paiva died in 1687 after a visit to his mines of Golconda diamonds and was buried in theJewish cemetery which he had established in Peddanaickenpet, which later became the north Mint Street,[50] alongside the synagogue which also existed at Mint Street. On his tombstone we find that he died in the month of Tishri 5548 / 1687 CE.[51]
Historically, diamonds of high quality were mined in the Golconda region,[53][B] and were reserved for emperors and rulers.[54] Sometimes, diamonds were considered to have supernatural powers, and were worn as amulets and talismans.[55] TheShah Jahan Diamond, which is currently part ofAl Saba Collection, was once an amulet ofMughal emperors.[56][57] Diamonds were treasured as gemstones,[53] and were believed to be a gift from God to humanity, and owning them was a sign of supremacy.[56] Golconda diamonds were popularized in the Middle East and the Western world by mediaeval andmodern-period travellers and traders such as Niccolò de' Conti,Muhammad al-Idrisi, Marco Polo, and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier.[14][58] Diamonds from India—most of which were Golconda diamonds—were used to decorate the crowns, coronets and sceptres of every nation;[59][60] it was considered a point of pride by any ruler to own a Golconda diamond.[59] TheIndustrial Revolution in the 19th century brought growth to the world economy, and the introduction of sophisticated cutting and polishing techniques led to a higher worldwide demand for diamonds.[53][61] The popularity of Golconda diamonds has risen since the 1950s because of successful advertising campaigns by traders.[62][63] They continue to be a popular gemstone in the 21st century.[14][15][64]
Golconda diamonds are the world's most magnificent diamonds.[65][66][67] They are formed of purecarbon and have no nitrogen,[68] and are rated high on grading standards, giving them the rareType IIa designation—(Type IIa count less than two percent of the world's natural diamonds.[15]).[14][15][64] They are large and naturally occur in many colours but most of them are known for theircolourless clarity andmaterial properties. Some are popular for their colours,[14][58][69] for which they are characterized asDiamonds of First water.[58]
Although Golconda diamonds are known for their size and clarity, the diamond mines of the Golconda region are now depleted and inactive.[70] Later discoveries of diamond deposits in regions such as Brazil post-1730, Australia post-1851, and Africa post-1866 provided significant supplies of diamonds, although their clarity generally does not match that of Golconda diamonds.[27][71][72] For these reasons, Golconda diamonds remain among the world's most-celebrated diamonds.[14][70]
Some of the notable Golconda diamonds are:
The world's top-four pink diamonds are from Golconda.[56]Cardinal Mazarin was an influentialChief minister of France during the reign ofLouis XIII andLouis XIV; Mazarin, a connoisseur of jewels, sponsored Jean Baptiste Tavernier's journey to India to collect diamonds; among his collection is the 19.07-carat, light-pinkLe Grand Mazarin Diamond, which he always kept close to him. In his will, Mazarin bequeathed the diamond to decorate the French crown; all of the French rulers from Louis XIV toNapoleon III have worn it. After France's defeat in theFranco-Prussian War (1870), the diamond, along with other French Crown Jewels, was sold to settle the losses.Frederic Boucheron, a jewellery-house owner, purchased it.[78]
According to a popular legend, the Koh-i-Noor should only be possessed by a female and will bring bad luck to a male.Alauddin Khalji, who obtained it from theKakatiya dynasty, was murdered by his slave.Nader Shah, who looted the Koh-i-Noor from theMughals and gave it its current name, was assassinated.Shuja Shah Durrani was overthrown by his predecessor and went into exile.Ranjit Singh died of a heart attack and when the diamond passed to theEast India Company, it was passed on toQueen Victoria, after which it was successively mounted in the crowns ofQueen Alexandra,Queen Mary, andQueen Elizabeth the Queen Mother. The latter crown, along with the otherCrown Jewels, is on public display in theJewel House at theTower of London.[30][93]
Accounts of ill fortune and curses are also associated with the Hope Diamond; Tavernier, who took the stone to Paris, was "torn to pieces by wild dogs" inConstantinople.Louis XIV gave it toMadame de Montespan, whom later he abandoned.Sultan Hamid of Turkey gave it to Abu Sabir to "polish" but Sabir was later imprisoned and tortured. An article entitled "Hope Diamond Has Brought Trouble To All Who Have Owned It" appeared inThe Washington Post in 1908.[94][95]
According to legend, the Regent Diamond was discovered between 1698 and 1701 at Kollur Mine. A slave worker who found the diamond smuggled it out by hiding it deep inside a self-inflicted cut. The slave wanted to escape from India with the diamond so he contacted the captain of a British ship. The slave and the captain agreed to share equally in the proceeds from the diamond's sale in exchange for safe passage. Later, the captain stole the diamond, killed the slave, and sold the diamond to an Indian merchant named Jamchand. Jamchand supposedly sold it toThomas Pitt, who in turn sold it toPhilippe d'Orléans.[96]
According to pervasive folklore narrated by Marco Polo about his 13th-century visits to the Golconda region, the diamond valley was replete with venomous snakes, making obtaining the diamonds dangerous. The diamond traders took a herd of cattle to the hilltop near the valley. After slaughtering the cattle, they catapulted cow flesh towards the diamond valley; the flesh became stuck to the diamonds, which were picked up by eagles and vultures that carried the cow flesh to their nests to eat. The stones remained after the birds consumed the flesh, allowing the stones to be tracked and collected by the local merchants' workers.[13][97] According to Jean R. Brink, who wroteRenaissance Culture in Context: Theory and Practice (2017), this legend is repeated in many mediaeval Arabic and Chinese literary works. It was also repeated by Marco Polo, who visited the region's capitalWarangal but did not visit the mining sites.[98]
Being the world's most-famous, large, and valuable stones with interesting histories, Golconda diamonds attract envy and fascination, for which many controversies, robberies, and scandals have occurred.[99][100] TheAffair of the Diamond Necklace (1784–1786) was about a 2,800-carat necklace containing 647 gems. The incident brought ignominy toQueen Marie Antoinette and later instigated theFrench Revolution.[101][102] In 1792, the French Crown Jewels were stolen from theGarde Meuble (Royal Treasury); although most of the jewels were traced, the thieves sold the Sancy and Regent Diamonds, and the Royal French Blue Diamond was cut and renamed the Hope Diamond. The thief returned the Mazarin Diamond in exchange for a pardon and the diamond was restored to the French crown.[78][103][104] In 1811,Napoleon Bonaparte gifted his wifeMarie Louise theNapoleon Diamond Necklace, which became a sensation during theGreat Depression (1929) whenArchduke Leopold of Austria was imprisoned onlarceny charges connected with the necklace sale.[105]
In 1980, a heist was executed atSydney Town Hall, New South Wales, Australia, to steal the 95-carat yellowGolconda d'or diamond from an exhibition display.[106][107] In 2019, theAl Thani Collection ofQatar faced a trial after purchasing thePrincie Diamond in an auction without its heir's consent. The matter was settled out of court.[108] In the same year, jewels worthUS$1.2 billion were stolen in a heist from theGreen Vault inDresden Castle, Germany; along with other treasures, the 49-caratrose cutDresden White Diamond, which was made into anepaulette duringthe Seven Years' War of 1756 AD, was stolen. The diamond belonged to 18th-century rulerFrederick Augustus I of Saxony.[109][110][111]
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