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Goetia (goh-Eh-tee-ah,[1] English:goety[2]) is a type of European sorcery, often referred to aswitchcraft, that has been transmitted throughgrimoires—books containing instructions for performing magical practices. The term "goetia" finds its origins in the Greek word "goes", which originally denoteddiviners,magicians, healers, andseers.[3] Initially, it held a connotation oflow magic, implying fraudulent or deceptivemageia as opposed totheurgy, which was regarded as divine magic.Grimoires, also known as "books of spells" or "spellbooks", serve as instructional manuals for various magical endeavors. They cover crafting magical objects, casting spells, performing divination, and summoningsupernatural entities, such asangels,spirits,deities, anddemons. Although the term "grimoire" originates from Europe, similar magical texts have been found in diverse cultures across the world.
The history of grimoires can be traced back to ancientMesopotamia, where magical incantations were inscribed on cuneiform clay tablets. Ancient Egyptians also employed magical practices, includingincantations inscribed onamulets. The magical system of ancient Egypt, deified in the form of the godHeka, underwent changes after the Macedonian invasion led byAlexander the Great. The rise of theCoptic writing system and theLibrary of Alexandria further influenced the development of magical texts, which evolved from simple charms to encompass various aspects of life, including financial success and fulfillment. Legendary figures likeHermes Trismegistus emerged, associated with writing and magic, contributing to the creation of magical books.
Throughout history, various cultures have contributed to magical practices. Early Christianity saw the use of grimoires by certainGnostic sects, with texts like theBook of Enoch containing astrological and angelic information.King Solomon of Israel was linked with magic and sorcery, attributed to a book with incantations for summoning demons. ThepseudepigraphicTestament of Solomon, one of the oldest magical texts, narrates Solomon's use of a magical ring to command demons. With the ascent of Christianity, books on magic were frowned upon, and the spread of magical practices was often associated withpaganism. This sentiment led to book burnings and the association of magical practitioners withheresy and witchcraft.
The magical revival of Goetia gained momentum in the 19th century, spearheaded by figures likeEliphas Levi andAleister Crowley. They interpreted and popularized magical traditions, incorporating elements fromKabbalah,Hermeticism, andceremonial magic. Levi emphasized personal transformation and ethical implications, while Crowley's works were written in support of hisnew religious movement,Thelema. Contemporary practitioners ofoccultism andesotericism continue to engage with Goetia, drawing from historical texts while adapting rituals to align with personal beliefs. Ethical debates surround Goetia, with some approaching it cautiously due to the potential risks of interacting with powerful entities. Others view it as a means of inner transformation and self-empowerment.
Agrimoire (also known as a "book of spells", "magic book", or a "spellbook") is atextbook ofmagic, typically including instructions on how to create magical objects liketalismans andamulets, how to perform magicalspells, charms, anddivination, and how tosummon orinvoke supernatural entities such asangels,spirits,deities, anddemons.[4] While the termgrimoire is originally European—and many Europeans throughout history, particularlyceremonial magicians andcunning folk, have used grimoires—the historianOwen Davies has noted that similar books can be found all around the world, ranging fromJamaica toSumatra.[5] He also noted that in this sense, the world's first grimoires were created in Europe and theancient Near East.[6]
The earliest known written magical incantations come from ancientMesopotamia (modernIraq), where they have been found inscribed oncuneiform clay tablets thatarchaeologists excavated from the city ofUruk and dated to between the 5th and 4th centuries BC.[7] Theancient Egyptians also employed magical incantations, which have been found inscribed on amulets and other items. The Egyptian magical system, known asheka, was greatly altered and expanded after theMacedonians, led byAlexander the Great, invaded Egypt in 332 BC.[8]
Under the next three centuries ofHellenistic Egypt, theCoptic writing system evolved, and theLibrary of Alexandria was opened. This likely had an influence upon books of magic, with the trend on known incantations switching from simple health and protection charms to more specific things, such as financial success and sexual fulfillment.[8] Around this time the legendary figure ofHermes Trismegistus developed as a conflation of the Egyptian godThoth and the GreekHermes; this figure was associated with writing and magic and, therefore, of books on magic.[9]
Theancient Greeks andRomans believed that books on magic were invented by thePersians. The 1st-century AD writerPliny the Elder stated that magic had been first discovered by the ancient philosopherZoroaster around the year 647 BC but that it was only written down in the 5th century BC by the magicianOsthanes. His claims are not, however, supported by modern historians.[10] TheGreek Magical Papyri, nearly a millennium after the fall of Mesopotamia, preserve the name of the Sumerian goddessEreshkigal.[11]
The ancientJewish people were often viewed as being knowledgeable in magic, which, according to legend, they had learned fromMoses, who had learned it in Egypt. Among many ancient writers, Moses was seen as an Egyptian rather than a Jew. Two manuscripts likely dating to the 4th century, both of which purport to be the legendary eighth Book of Moses (the first five being the initial books in the BiblicalOld Testament), present him as apolytheist who explained how to conjure gods and subdue demons.[9]
Meanwhile, there is definite evidence of grimoires being used by certain—particularlyGnostic—sects ofearly Christianity. In theBook of Enoch found within theDead Sea Scrolls, for instance, there is information onastrology andthe angels. In possible connection with theBook of Enoch, the idea ofEnoch and his great-grandsonNoah having some involvement with books of magic given to them by angels continued through to the medieval period.[10]
Israelite KingSolomon was a Biblical figure associated with magic and sorcery in the ancient world. The 1st-century Romano-Jewish historianJosephus mentioned a book circulating under the name of Solomon that contained incantations for summoning demons and described how a Jew called Eleazar used it tocure cases of possession.[12]
ThepseudepigraphicTestament of Solomon is one of the oldest magical texts. It is a Greek manuscript attributed to Solomon and was likely written in eitherBabylonia or Egypt sometime in the first five centuries AD, over 1,000 years after Solomon's death. The work tells of the building ofThe Temple and relates that construction was hampered by demons until thearchangelMichael gave the King a magical ring. The ring, engraved with theSeal of Solomon, had the power to bind demons from doing harm. Solomon used it to lock demons in jars and commanded others to do his bidding, although eventually, according to theTestament, he was tempted into worshiping the godsMoloch andAshtoreth. Subsequently, after losing favour with the God of Israel, King Solomon wrote the work as a warning and a guide to the reader.[13]
When Christianity became the dominant faith of theRoman Empire, the early Church frowned upon the propagation of books on magic, connecting it withpaganism, andburned books of magic. TheNew Testament records that after the unsuccessfulexorcism by the seven sons ofSceva became known, many converts decided toburn their own magic and pagan books in the city ofEphesus; this advice was adopted on a large scale after the Christian ascent to power.[14]
The English word magic has its origins inancient Greece.[15]During the late sixth and early fifth centuries BC, the Persianmaguš was Graecicized and introduced into the ancient Greek language asμάγος andμαγεία.[16] In doing so it transformed meaning, gaining negative connotations, with themagos being regarded as a charlatan whose ritual practices were fraudulent, strange, unconventional, and dangerous.[16] As noted by Davies, for the ancient Greeks—and subsequently for the ancient Romans—"magic was not distinct from religion but rather an unwelcome, improper expression of it—the religion of the other".[17] The historian Richard Gordon suggested that for the ancient Greeks, being accused of practicing magic was "a form of insult".[18]
Magical operations largely fell into two categories:theurgy (θεουργία) defined as high magic, andgoetia (γοητεία) as low magic or witchcraft. Theurgy in some contexts appears simply to glorify the kind of magic that is being practiced—usually a respectable priest-like figure is associated with the ritual.[19]Goetia was a derogatory term connoting low, specious or fraudulentmageia.[20][21][22]
Curse tablets, curses inscribed on wax or lead tablets and buried underground, were frequently executed by all strata of Greek society, sometimes to protect the entirepolis.[23] Communal curses carried out in public declined after the Greek classical period, but private curses remained common throughout antiquity.[24] They were distinguished as magical by their individualistic, instrumental and sinister qualities.[25] These qualities, and their perceived deviation from inherently mutable cultural constructs of normality, most clearly delineate ancient magic from the religious rituals of which they form a part.[26]
A large number ofmagical papyri, inGreek,Coptic, andDemotic, have been recovered and translated.[27] They contain early instances of:
In the first century BC, the Greek concept of themagos was adopted intoLatin and used by a number ofancient Roman writers asmagus andmagia.[16] The earliest known Latin use of the term was inVirgil'sEclogue, written around 40 BC, which makes reference tomagicis... sacris (magic rites).[30] The Romans already had other terms for the negative use of supernatural powers, such asveneficus andsaga.[30] The Roman use of the term was similar to that of the Greeks, but placed greater emphasis on the judicial application of it.[16]
In ancient Roman society, magic was associated with societies to the east of the empire; the first century AD writerPliny the Elder for instance claimed that magic had been created by the Iranian philosopherZoroaster, and that it had then been brought west into Greece by the magicianOsthanes, who accompanied the military campaigns of the Persian KingXerxes.[31]
Within theRoman Empire, laws would be introduced criminalising things regarded as magic.[32] The practice of magic was banned in the late Roman world, and theCodex Theodosianus (438 AD) states:
If any wizard therefore or person imbued with magical contamination who is called by custom of the people a magician [...] should be apprehended in my retinue, or in that of the Caesar, he shall not escape punishment and torture by the protection of his rank.[33]
Christopher A. Faraone writes that "In Late Antiquity we can see that a goddess invoked as Hecate Ereshkigal was useful in both protective magic and in curses. [...] she also appears on a number of curse tablets [...]"[35] Robin Melrose writes that "the first clear-cut magic in Britain was the use ofcurse tablets, which came with the Romans.[36]
Potter and Johns wrote that "Some classical deities, notablyHecate of theunderworld, had triple manifestations. In Roman Britain, some fifty dedications to the Mothers are recorded in stone inscriptions and other objects, constituting ample evidence of the importance of the cult among native Celts and others."[37]
In 1979–80, theBath curse tablets were found at the site ofAquae Sulis (nowBath in England).[38] All but one of the 130 tablets concerned the restitution of stolen goods.[39] Over 80 similar tablets have been discovered in and about the remains of a temple toMercury nearby, at West Hill,Uley,[40] making south-western Britain one of the major centres for finds of Latindefixiones.
Most of the inscriptions are in colloquial Latin,[41] and specifically in theVulgar Latin of theRomano-British population, known as "British Latin".[42][43] Two of the inscriptions are in a language which is not Latin, although they use Roman lettering, and may be in a BritishCeltic language.[44] If this should be the case, they would be the only examples of a written ancient British Celtic language; however, there is not yet scholarly consensus on their decipherment.[45]
There is also a medieval-eraTemplar Magic Square in theRivington Church inLancashire, England.[46] Scholars have found medieval Sator-based charms, remedies, and cures, for a diverse range of applications from childbirth, to toothaches, to love potions, to ways of warding off evil spells, and even to determine whether someone was a witch.[47]Richard Cavendish notes a medieval manuscript in theBodleian says: "Write these [five sator] words on in parchment with the blood of a Culver [pigeon] and bear it in thy left hand and ask what thou wilt and thou shalt have it. fiat."[48]
In medieval times, the Roman temple at Bath would be incorporated into theMatter of Britain. The thermal springs at Bath were said to have been dedicated to Minerva by the legendary KingBladud and the temple there endowed with an eternal flame.[49]
Godfrid Storms argued thatanimism played a significant role in the worldview of Anglo-Saxon magic, noting that in the recorded charms, "All sorts of phenomenon are ascribed to the visible or invisible intervention of good or evil spirits."[50] The primary creature of the spirit world that appear in the Anglo-Saxon charms is theælf (nominative pluralylfe, "elf"), an entity who was believed to cause sickness in humans.[51] Another type of spirit creature, a demonic one, believed to cause physical harm in the Anglo-Saxon world was thedweorg ordƿeorg/dwerg ("dwarf"), whom Storms characterised as a "disease-spirit".[52] A number of charms imply the belief that malevolent "disease-spirits" were causing sickness by inhabiting a person's blood. Such charms offer remedies to remove these spirits, calling for blood to be drawn out to drive the disease-spirit out with it.[53]
The adoption of Christianity saw some of these pre-Christian mythological creatures reinterpreted asdevils, who are also referenced in the surviving charms.[52] In late Anglo-Saxon England,nigromancy ('black magic', sometimes confused withnecromancy) was among the witchcraft practices condemned byÆlfric of Eynsham (c. 955 – c. 1010):[54][55][56]
Witches still go to cross-roads and to heathen burials with their delusive magic and call to the devil; and he comes to them in the likeness of the man that is buried there, as if he arises from death.[57]
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Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335 – c. 395) had said thatdemons had children with women calledcambions, which added to the children they had between them, contributed to increase the number of demons. However, the first popular account of such a union and offspring does not occur in Western literature until around 1136, whenGeoffrey of Monmouth wrote the story ofMerlin in his pseudohistorical account of British history,Historia Regum Britanniae(History of the Kings of Britain), in which he reported that Merlin's father was anincubus.[58]
Anne Lawrence-Mathers writes that at that time "views on demons and spirits were still relatively flexible. There was still a possibility that thedaemons of classical tradition were different from the demons of the Bible."[58] Accounts of sexual relations with demons in literature continues withThe Life of SaintBernard byGeoffrey of Auxerre (c. 1160) and theLife and Miracles of St.William of Norwich byThomas of Monmouth (c. 1173). The theme of sexual relations with demons became a matter of increasing interest for late 12th-century writers.[58]
Prophetiae Merlini (The Prophecies of Merlin), a Latin work ofGeoffrey of Monmouth in circulation by 1135,[59][60] perhaps as alibellus or short work,[61] was the first work about the prophetMyrddin in a language other thanWelsh. TheProphetiae was widely read—and believed—throughout Europe, much as the prophecies ofNostradamus would be centuries later; John Jay Parry and Robert Caldwell note that theProphetiae Merlini "were taken most seriously, even by the learned and worldly wise, in many nations", and list examples of this credulity as late as 1445.[62]
It was only beginning in the 1150s that the Church turned its attention to defining the possible roles of spirits and demons, especially with respect to their sexuality and in connection with the various forms ofmagic which were then believed to exist.[58] Christian demonologists eventually came to agree that sexual relationships between demons and humans happen, but they disagreed on why and how.[58] A common point of view is that demons induce men and women to thesin oflust, andadultery is often considered as an associated sin.
Goetia and some (though not all) medieval grimoires became associated withdemonolatry. These grimoires containmagical words of power and instructions for theevocation ofspirits derived from older pagan traditions. Sources includeAssyrian,Egyptian,Persian, Greek, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon paganism and include demons or devils mentioned in theBible, such asAsmodeus,Astaroth, andBeelzebub.[3]
During the 14th century, sorcerers were feared and respected throughout many societies and used many practices to achieve their goals. "Witches or sorcerers were usually feared as well as respected, and they used a variety of means to attempt to achieve their goals, including incantations (formulas or chants invoking evil spirits),divination andoracles (to predict the future),amulets andcharms (to ward off hostile spirits and harmful events),potions or salves, anddolls or other figures (to represent their enemies)".[63]
Medieval Europe saw the Latin legal termmaleficium[64] applied to forms ofsorcery orwitchcraft that were conducted with the intention of causing harm.[65] Early in the 14th century,maleficium was one of the charges leveled against theKnights Templar.[66][67]
Maleficium was defined as "the practice ofmalevolent magic, derived from casting lots as a means of divining the future in the ancient Mediterranean world",[68] or as "an act of witchcraft performed with the intention of causing damage or injury; the resultant harm."[69] In general, the term applies to any magical act intended to cause harm or death to people or property.[69] Lewis and Russell stated, "Maleficium was a threat not only to individuals but also to public order, for a community wracked by suspicions about witches could split asunder".[63] Those accused of maleficium were punished by being imprisoned or even executed.[70]
Sorcery came to be associated with the Old Testament figure ofSolomon; variousgrimoires, or books outlining magical practices, were written that claimed to have been written by Solomon.[71] One well-known goetic grimoire is theArs Goetia, included in the 16th-century text known asThe Lesser Key of Solomon,[3] which was likely compiled from materials several centuries older.[72][73]
One of the most obvious sources for theArs Goetia isJohann Weyer'sPseudomonarchia Daemonum in hisDe praestigiis daemonum (1577). Weyer relates that his source for this intelligence was a book calledLiber officiorum spirituum, seu liber dictus Empto Salomonis, de principibus et regibus demoniorum ("The book of the offices of spirits, or the book called Empto, by Solomon, about the princes and kings of demons").[74] Weyer does not cite, and is unaware of, any other books in theLemegeton, suggesting that theLemegeton was derived from his work, not the other way around.[74][75] Additionally, some material came fromHeinrich Cornelius Agrippa'sThree Books of Occult Philosophy (1533), and theHeptameron by pseudo-Pietro d'Abano.[a][74][76]
The later Middle Ages saw words for these practitioners of harmful magical acts appear in various European languages:sorcière in French,Hexe in German,strega in Italian, andbruja in Spanish.[77] The English term for malevolent practitioners of magic, witch, derived from the earlierOld English termwicce.[77] A person that performs sorcery is referred to as asorcerer or awitch, conceived as someone who tries to reshape the world through the occult. The wordwitch is over a thousand years old: Old English formed the compoundwiccecræft fromwicce ('witch') andcræft ('craft').[78] The masculine form waswicca ('male sorcerer').[79] In early modernScots, the wordwarlock came to be used as the male equivalent ofwitch (which can be male or female, but is used predominantly for females).[80][81][82]
Probably the best-known characteristic of a sorcerer or witch is their ability to cast aspell—a set of words, a formula or verse, a ritual, or a combination of these, employed to do magic.[83] Spells traditionally were cast by many methods, such as by the inscription ofglyphs orsigils on an object to give that object magical powers; by the immolation or binding of a wax or clay image (poppet) of a person to affect them magically; by the recitation ofincantations; by the performance of physicalrituals; by the employment of magicalherbs as amulets orpotions; by gazing at mirrors, swords or other specula (scrying) for purposes of divination; and by many other means.[84][85][86]
During theRenaissance, the many magical practices and rituals ofgoetia were considered evil or irreligious and by extension, black magic in the broad sense.Witchcraft and non-mainstreamesoteric study were prohibited and targeted by theInquisition.[87]
InChristianity, sorcery came to be associated withheresy andapostasy and to be viewed as evil. Among theCatholics, Protestants, andsecular leadership of theEuropeanEarly Modern period, fears about sorcery and witchcraft rose to fever pitch and sometimes led to large-scalewitch-hunts. The key century was the fifteenth, which saw a dramatic rise in awareness and terror of witchcraft, culminating in the publication of theMalleus Maleficarum but prepared by such fanatical popular preachers as Bernardino of Siena.[88]
TheMalleus Maleficarum, (Latin for 'Hammer of The Witches') was a witch-hunting manual written in 1486 by two German monks, Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger. It was used by both Catholics and Protestants[89] for several hundred years, outlining how to identify a witch, what makes a woman more likely than a man to be a witch, how to put a witch on trial, and how to punish a witch. The book defines a witch as evil and typically female. The book became the handbook for secular courts throughoutRenaissance Europe, but was not used by the Inquisition, which even cautioned against relying on the work.[b] In total, tens or hundreds of thousands of people were executed, and others were imprisoned, tortured, banished, and had lands and possessions confiscated. The majority of those accused were women, though in some regions the majority were men.[90][91]
Johann Weyer (1515–1588) was a Dutchphysician,occultist anddemonologist, and a disciple and follower ofHeinrich Cornelius Agrippa. He was among the first to publish against the persecution ofwitches. His most influential work isDe Praestigiis Daemonum et Incantationibus ac Venificiis ('On the Illusions of the Demons and on Spells and Poisons'; 1563).
In 1584, the English writerReginald Scot publishedThe Discoverie of Witchcraft, a book intended as an exposé of early modernwitchcraft. Scot believed that the prosecution of those accused of witchcraft was irrational and notChristian, and he held theRoman Church responsible. Popular belief held that all obtainable copies were burned on the accession ofJames I in 1603.[92]
In 1597,King James VI and I published a treatise,Daemonologie, aphilosophical dissertation on contemporarynecromancy and the historical relationships between the various methods ofdivination used from ancientblack magic. It was reprinted again in 1603 when James took the throne of England. The widespread consensus is that King James wroteDaemonologie in response to sceptical publications such as Scot's book.[93]
European witch-trials reached their peak in the early 17th century, after which popular sentiment began to turn against the practice.Friedrich Spee's bookCautio Criminalis, published in 1631, argued that witch-trials were largely unreliable and immoral.[94] In 1682, KingLouis XIV prohibited further witch-trials in France. In 1736,Great Britain formally ended witch-trials with passage of theWitchcraft Act.[95]
The magical revival of Goetia gained significant momentum in the 19th century with the contributions of figures likeEliphas Levi. Levi, a French occultist and writer, played a pivotal role in reinterpreting and popularizing magical traditions, including Goetia. His works, such asThe Key of the Mysterie andTranscendental Magic, synthesized elements ofKabbalah,Hermeticism, and ceremonial magic. Levi's perspective framed Goetia as a means of harnessing and mastering the forces of the spiritual world for personal transformation. He emphasized the moral and ethical implications ofmagical practice, reflecting the changing intellectual landscape of the time.[96]
Aleister Crowley, a central figure in 20th-centuryoccultism, continued the magical revival of Goetia. A member of theHermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Crowley was deeply influenced by its teachings and rituals. His exploration of Goetia can be seen in hisThe Book of the Goetia of Solomon the King, which offered his perspective on working with spirits. Crowley's approach blended his interpretation of ceremonial magic,Eastern mysticism, and personal experimentation. He emphasized the magician's willpower and authority in commanding spirits, reflecting his individualistic and transformativemagical philosophy.[97]
The magical revival of Goetia has persisted into modern times within the realm of occultism. Contemporary practitioners of ceremonial magic, occult traditions, andesotericism often incorporate elements of Goetia into their practices. These individuals draw from historicalgrimoires, including the classicLesser Key of Solomon, while also interpreting and adapting its rituals to align with their personal beliefs and spiritual goals. While some view Goetia as a path to self-mastery and spiritual empowerment, others engage with it as a historical curiosity or a means of connecting with symbolic forces.[98]
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