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InJudaism,God has been conceived in a variety of ways.[1] Traditionally, Judaism holds that God—that is, thegod ofAbraham,Isaac andJacob, and thenational god of theIsraelites—delivered them fromslavery in Egypt, and gave them theLaw of Moses atMount Sinai as described in theTorah.[2][3]Jews believe in amonotheistic conception of God ("God is one"),[4][5] characterized by bothtranscendence (independence from, and separation from, the material universe) andimmanence (active involvement in the material universe).[3]
God is seen as unique and perfect, free from all faults, and is believed to beomnipotent,omnipresent,omniscient, and unlimited in all attributes, with no partner or equal, serving as the solecreator of everything in existence.[3][6] In Judaism,God is never portrayed in any image.[7] Thenames of God used most often in theHebrew Bible are the un-pronouncedTetragrammaton (Hebrew:יהוה,romanized: YHWH) andElohim.[3][8] Other names used to refer to God in traditional Judaism include Adonai,El-Elyon,El Shaddai, andShekhinah.[8]
According to the rationalistic Jewish theology articulated by the Medieval Jewish philosopher and juristMoses Maimonides, which later came to dominate much of official and traditional Jewish thought, God is understood as theabsolute, indivisible, and incomparablebeing who is thecreator deity—the cause and preserver of all existence.[3][6] Maimonides affirmedAvicenna's conception of God as the Supreme Being, bothomnipresent andincorporeal,[6] necessarily existing for the creation of the universe while rejectingAristotle's conception of God as theunmoved mover, along with several of the latter's views such as denial of God as creator and affirmation of theeternity of the world.[6] Traditional interpretations of Judaism generally emphasize that God ispersonal yet also transcendent and able to intervene in the world,[8] while some modern interpretations of Judaism emphasize that God is animpersonal force or ideal rather than a supernatural being concerned with the universe.[1][3]
The name of God used most often in theHebrew Bible is theTetragrammaton (Hebrew:יהוה,romanized: YHWH).[8] Jews traditionally do not pronounce it, and instead refer to God asHaShem, literally "the Name".[8] In prayer, the Tetragrammaton is substituted with the pronunciationAdonai, meaning "My Lord",[10] as demonstrated in a common translation of theShema: "Hear O Israel: the LORD is our God, the LORD is One" (Deuteronomy 6:4).[5] Current scholarly consensus generally reconstructs the name's original pronunciation as "Yahweh".[11] In the traditional interpretations of Judaism, God is always referred to withmasculine grammatical articles only.[12]
In Judaism, Godhead refers to the aspect or substratum ofGod that lies behind God's actions or properties (i.e., it is theessence of God).
In the philosophy of Maimonides and other Jewish-rationalistic philosophers, there is little which can be known about the Godhead, other than its existence, and even this can only be asserted equivocally.
How then can a relation be represented between God and what is other than God when there is no notion comprising in any respect both of the two, inasmuch as existence is, in our opinion, affirmed of God, may God be exalted, and of what is other than God merely by way of absolute equivocation. There is, in truth, no relation in any respect between God and any of God's creatures.
— Maimonides, Moreh Nevuchim (Pines 1963)
In Kabbalistic thought, the term "Godhead" usually refers to the concept ofEin Sof (אין סוף), which is the aspect of God that lies beyond the emanations (sephirot). They are considered to be a dynamic and organic unity whose nature depends on humanity.[13] The "knowability" of the Godhead in Kabbalistic thought is no better than what is conceived by rationalist thinkers. As Jacobs (1973) puts it, "Of God as God is in Godself—Ein Sof—nothing can be said at all, and no thought can reach there".
Ein Sof is a place to which forgetting and oblivion pertain. Why? Because concerning all the sefirot, one can search out their reality from the depth of supernal wisdom. From there it is possible to understand one thing from another. However, concerning Ein Sof, there is no aspect anywhere to search or probe; nothing can be known of it, for it is hidden and concealed in the mystery of absolute nothingness.
— David ben Judah Hehasid, Matt (1990)
In modern articulations of traditional Judaism, God has been speculated to be theeternal,omnipotent, andomniscientcreator of the universe, as well as thesource for one's standards of morality, guiding humanity throughethical principles.[3][6]
Maimonides describes God in this fashion: "The foundation of all foundations and the pillar of wisdom is to know that there is a Primary Being who brought into being all existence. All the beings of the heavens, the earth, and what is between them came into existence only from the truth of His being."[14]
Jews often describe God as omniscient,[15] although some prominent medieval Jewish philosophers held that God does not have complete foreknowledge of human acts.Gersonides, for example, argued that God knows the choices open to each individual, but that God does not know the choices that an individual will make.[16]Abraham ibn Daud believed that God was not omniscient or omnipotent with respect to human action.[17]
Jews often describe God as omnipotent, and see that idea as rooted in the Hebrew Bible.[15] Some modern Jewish theologians have argued that God is not omnipotent, however, and have found many biblical and classical sources to support this view.[18] The traditional view is that God has the power to intervene in the world.
"That the Lord, He is God in heaven above and upon the earth beneath" (Deut. 4.39)Maimonides infers from this verse that the Holy One is omnipresent and therefore incorporeal, fora corporeal being is incapable of being in two places simultaneously.[19]
"To whom will ye liken me, that I should be equal?" (Isa. 40,25) Maimonides infers from this verse that, "had He been corporeal, He would be like other bodies".[19]
Although God is referred to in theTanakh with masculine imagery and grammatical forms, traditional Jewish philosophy does not attributegender to God.[20] Although Jewishaggadic literature andJewish mysticism do on occasion refer to God using gendered language, for poetic or other reasons, this language was never understood by Jews to imply that God is gender-specific.
Some modern Jewish thinkers take care to articulate God outside of thegender binary,[21] a concept seen as not applicable to God.
Kabbalistic tradition holds that emanations from the divine consist of tenaspects, calledsefirot.
TheTorah ascribes some human features to God, however, other Jewish religious works describe God as formless and otherworldly. Judaism isaniconic, meaning it lacks material, physical representations of both the natural and supernatural worlds. Furthermore, the worship of idols is strictly forbidden. The traditional view, elaborated by figures such asMaimonides, reckons that God is wholly incomprehensible and therefore impossible to envision, resulting in an historical tradition of "divine incorporeality". As such, attempting to describe God's "appearance" in practical terms is considered disrespectful, and possibly heretical.
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Most of classical Judaism views God as apersonal god and as a national god, meaning that individual humans and the nation of Israel both have a relationship with God and vice versa.[22] RabbiSamuel S. Cohon wrote that "God as conceived by Judaism is not only the First Cause, the Creative Power, and the World Reason, but also the living and loving Father of Men. He is not only cosmic but also personal....Jewish monotheism thinks of God in terms of definite character or personality, while pantheism is content with a view of God as impersonal." This is shown in theJewish liturgy, such as in theAdon Olamhymn, which includes a "confident affirmation" that "He is my God, my living God...Who hears and answers."[23]Edward Kessler writes that Hebrew Bible "portrays an encounter with a God who cares passionately and who addresses humanity in the quiet moments of its existence."[24]British chief rabbiJonathan Sacks suggests that God "is not distant in time or detached, but passionately engaged and present".[24]
The word "personal", as applied to God in Judaism, does not connote that God iscorporeal oranthropomorphic, views that Jewish sages rejected; rather, "personality" refers not to a physical body, but to "inner essence, psychical, rational, and moral".[23] However, some non-traditional Jewish texts, for example, theShi'ur Qomah of theHeichalot literature, describe the measurements of limbs and body parts of God.
Jews believe that "God can be experienced" but also that "God cannot be understood", because "God is utterly unlike humankind" (as shown in God's response to Moses when Moses asked for God's name: "I Am that I Am"). Anthropomorphic statements about God "are understood as linguistic metaphors, otherwise it would be impossible to talk about God at all".[24]
A notion that God is in need of human beings has been propounded byAbraham Joshua Heschel. Because God is in search of people, God is accessible and available through time and place to whoever seeks God, leading to a spiritual intensity for the individual as well. This accessibility leads to a God who is present, involved, near, intimate, and concerned for and vulnerable to what happens in this world.[25]
Modern Jewish thinkers claim that there is an "alternate stream of tradition exemplified by ... Maimonides", who, along with several other Jewish philosophers, rejected the idea of a personal God.[24] According to thePew Forum on Religion and Public Life's 2008 U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, Americans who identify as Jewish by religion are twice as likely to favor ideas of God as "an impersonal force" over the idea that "God is a person with whom people can have a relationship".[26]
Modern Jewish thinkers who have rejected the idea of a personal God have sometimes affirmed that God is nature, the ethical ideal, or a force or process in the world.
Baruch Spinoza offers a pantheist view of God. In his thought, God is everything and everything is God. Thus, there can be conceived no substance but God.[27] In this model, one can speak of God and nature interchangeably. Although Spinoza was excommunicated from the Jewish community of Amsterdam, Spinoza's concept of God was revived by later Jews, especially Israeli secular Zionists.[28]
Hermann Cohen rejected Spinoza's idea that God can be found in nature, but agreed that God was not a personal being. Rather, he saw God as an ideal, an archetype of morality.[29] Not only can God not be identified with nature, but God is also incomparable to anything in the world.[29] This is because God is "One", unique and unlike anything else.[29] One loves and worships God through living ethically and obeying His moral law: "love of God is love of morality."[29]
Similarly, forEmmanuel Levinas, God is ethics, so one is brought closer to God when justice is rendered to the Other. This means that one experiences the presence of God through one's relation to other people. To know God is to know what must be done, so it does not make sense to speak of God as what God is, but rather what God commands.[30]
ForMordecai Kaplan, the founder ofReconstructionist Judaism, God is not a person, but rather a force within the universe that is experienced; in fact, anytime something worthwhile is experienced, that is God.[31] God is the sum of all natural processes that allow people to be self-fulfilling, the power that makes for salvation.[32] Thus, Kaplan's God is abstract, not carnate, and intangible. In this model, God exists within this universe; for Kaplan, there is nothing supernatural or otherworldly. One loves this God by seeking out truth and goodness. Kaplan does not view God as a person but acknowledges that using personal God-language can help people feel connected to their heritage and can act as "an affirmation that life has value".[33]
Likewise, RabbiZalman Schachter-Shalomi, the founder of theJewish Renewal movement, views God as a process. To aid in this transition in language, he uses the term "godding", which encapsulates God as a process, asthe process that the universe is doing, has been doing, and will continue to do.[34] This term means that God is emerging, growing, adapting, and evolving with creation. Despite this, conventional God-language is still useful in nurturing spiritual experiences and can be a tool to relate to the infinite, although it should not be confused with the real thing.[35]
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