This article is about the diverse theistic views within Hinduism. For specific deities, seeHindu deities.
Framed images of variousHindu deities. Indualistic Hindu thought, the Hindu deities are viewed and worshipped as aspects of, or incarnations, of the same-singleultimate reality calledBrahman.[1][note 1]Innondualistic Hindu thought, the self in each being (Atman) is considered identical withBrahman,expressed in the analogy of essential unity between a wave (individual self) and the ocean (God/higher self).
Henotheism was the term used by scholars such asMax Müller to describe the theology ofVedic religion.[32][33] Müller noted that the hymns of theRigveda, the oldest scripture of Hinduism, mention many deities, but praise them successively as the "one ultimate, supreme God" (calledsaccidānanda in some traditions), alternatively as "one supreme Goddess",[34] thereby asserting that the essence of the deities was unitary (ekam), and the deities were nothing but pluralistic manifestations of the same concept of the divine (God).[33][35][36]
The idea that there can be and are plural perspectives for the same divine or spiritual principle repeats in the Vedic texts. For example, other than hymn 1.164 with this teaching,[30] the more ancient hymn 5.3 of theRigveda states:
You at your birth areVaruna, OAgni.When you are kindled, you areMitra.In you, O son of strength, all gods are centered.You areIndra to the mortal who brings oblation.You areAryaman, when you are regarded as having the mysterious names of maidens, O Self-sustainer.
Related terms to henotheism aremonolatrism andkathenotheism.[39] The latter term is an extension of "henotheism", fromκαθ' ἕνα θεόν (kath' hena theon) — "one god at a time".[40] Henotheism refers to a pluralistic theology wherein different deities are viewed to be of a unitary, equivalent divine essence.[33] Some scholars prefer the termmonolatry to henotheism, to discuss religions where a single god is central, but the existence or the position of other gods is not denied.[39][36] Another term related to henotheism is "equitheism", referring to the belief that all gods are equal.[41]
"Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen?"
The Vedic era conceptualization of the divine or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more abstract than a monotheistic God, it is the Reality behind and of the phenomenal universe.[need quotation to verify][45] The Vedic hymns treat it as "limitless, indescribable, absolute principle", thus the Vedic divine is something of apanentheism rather than simple henotheism.[45]
Hinduism calls the metaphysicalabsolute conceptBrahman, incorporating within ittranscendence andimmanence.[49][50][51] Different schools of thought interpret Brahman as eitherpersonal, impersonal, or transpersonal. Ishwar Chandra Sharma describes it as "Absolute Reality, beyond all dualities of existence and non-existence, light and darkness, and of time, space and cause".[52]
Influential ancient and medieval Hindu philosophers, states philosophy professor Roy Perrett, teach their spiritual ideas with a world createdex nihilo and "effectively manage without God altogether".[53] InHindu philosophy, there are many different schools.[54] Its non-theist traditions such as Samkhya, early Nyaya, Mimamsa and many within Vedanta such as Advaita do not posit the existence of an almighty, omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent God (monotheistic God), while its theistic traditions posit a personal God left to the choice of the Hindu. The major schools of Hindu philosophy explain morality and the nature of existence through thekarma andsamsara doctrines, as in other Indian religions.[55][56][57]
Ōṃ is given many meanings and layers of symbolism in theUpanishads, including "the sacred sound,Om, theVedas, theudgitha (song of the universe), the infinite, the all encompassing, the whole world, the truth,the Ultimate Reality, the finest essence,the cause of the universe, the essence of life, theBrahman, theātman, the vehicle of deepest knowledge, andself-knowledge (ātmajñāna)".[58]
Monotheism is the belief in a single creator God and the lack of belief in any other Creator.[59][60] Differentsects of Hinduism may or may not posit or require such a belief, as religion is considered a personal belief in Hinduism and followers are free to choose the different interpretations within the framework ofkarma andsamsara. Many forms of Hinduism believe in a type of monotheistic God, such asKrishnaism with polymorphic theism, some schools ofVedanta, andArya Samaj.[61][62][63]
Advaita Vedanta, for instance, espousesmonism, and holdsBrahman to be unchanging and undifferentiated from reality.Brahman is therefore undifferentiated from the individual self, orAtman.[15][64] The concept is thought by some, such asDavid Adams Leeming andGavin Flood, to resemble monotheistic conceptions of god to some degree, since all other since are believed to be manifestations ofBrahman.[15][65]
Several medieval Muslim scholars, such asal-Biruni andAmir Khusrau, described Hinduism as fundamentally monotheistic in nature, and attributed polytheistic worship to a lack of education.[66]
Madhvacharya (1238–1317 CE) developed theDvaita theology wherein Vishnu was presented as a monotheistic God, similar to major world religions.[67][68] His writings led some, such asGeorge Abraham Grierson, to suggest he was influenced byChristianity.[69] However, modern scholarship rules out the influence of Christianity on Madhvacharya,[69][70] as there is no evidence that there ever was a Christian settlement where Madhvacharya grew up and lived, or that there was a sharing or discussion of ideas between someone with knowledge of the Bible and Christian narratives, and him.[71] Furthermore, many adherents consider the similarities to be superficial and insubstantial; for example, Madhvacharya postulates three co-eternal fundamental realities, consisting of Supreme Being (Vishnu or paramatman), individual Self (jīvātman), and inanimate matter.[72]
Madhvacharya was misperceived and misrepresented by both Christian missionaries and Hindu writers during the colonial era scholarship.[73][71] The similarities in the primacy of one God, dualism and distinction between man and God, devotion to God, the son of God as the intermediary, predestination, the role of grace in salvation, as well as the similarities in the legends of miracles in Christianity and Madhvacharya's Dvaita tradition fed these stories.[73][71] Among Christian writers, G. A. Grierson creatively asserted that Madhva's ideas evidently were "borrowed from Christianity, quite possibly promulgated as a rival to the central doctrine of that faith".[74] Among Hindu writers, according to Sarma, S. C. Vasu creatively translated Madhvacharya's works to identify Madhvacharya with Christ, rather than compare their ideas.[75]
In a 2021 nationwide surveyPew Research Center found out that 29% of the self-described Indian Hindus believe "there is only one God" while 61% believed in "there is only one God with many manifestations".[76]
Many traditions within Hinduism share the Vedic idea of a metaphysical ultimate reality and truth calledBrahman. According toJan Gonda,Brahman denoted the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas" in the earliest Vedic texts. The early Vedic religious understanding of Brahman underwent a series of abstractions in the Hindu scriptures that followed the Vedic scriptures. These scriptures would reveal a vast body of insights into the nature of Brahman as originally revealed in the Vedas. These Hindu traditions that emerged from or identified with the Vedic scriptures and that maintained the notion of a metaphysical ultimate reality would identify that ultimate reality as Brahman. Hindu adherents to these traditions within Hinduism revere Hindu deities and, indeed, all of existence, as aspects of the Brahman.[77][78] The deities in Hinduism are not considered to be almighty, omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent, and spirituality is considered to be seeking the ultimate truth that is possible by a number of paths.[79][80][81] Like other Indian religions, in Hinduism, deities are born, they live and they die in everykalpa (eon, cycle of existence).[82]
In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, theUltimate Reality in theuniverse.[83][84][85] In major schools ofHindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient, formal and finalcause of all that exists.[84][86][87] It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.[83][88][89] Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.[83][90]
Brahman is aVedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, statesPaul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".[91] Brahman is a key concept found in theVedas, and it is extensively discussed in the earlyUpanishads.[92] TheVedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle.[93] In the Upanishads, it has been variously described asSat-cit-ānanda (truth-consciousness-bliss)[94][95] and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.[88][96][note 2][note 3]
Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept ofAtman (Self),[92][99]personal,[note 4]impersonal[note 5] orPara Brahman,[note 6] or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.[100] Indualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theisticDvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being, and therein it shares conceptual framework ofGod in major world religions.[87][67][101] Innon-dual schools of Hinduism such as themonistAdvaita Vedanta, Brahman is identical to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.[89][102][103]
The Upanishads contain severalmahā-vākyas or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:[104]
While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence ofBrahman andAtman, they also expound on Brahman assaguna Brahman—the Brahman with attributes, andnirguna Brahman—the Brahman without attributes.[112] Thenirguna Brahman is the Brahman as it really is, however, thesaguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizingnirguna Brahman, but the Hinduism schools declaresaguna Brahman to be ultimately illusory.[113] The concept of thesaguna Brahman, such as in the form ofavatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.[113]
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman—Nirguna andSaguna.[114]Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.[115]Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.[115] The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in theBhagavad Gita.[114][116] It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives: one fromNirguni knowledge-focus and other fromSaguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.[116]Nirguna bhakta's poetry wereJnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.[114]Saguna bhakta's poetry werePrema-shrayi, or with roots in love.[114] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.[116]
Nirguna andSaguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly theNirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".[117] Yet given the "mountains ofNirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti forNirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti forSaguna Brahman.[117] These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.[114]
The Yogasutras of Patanjali use the termIshvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what isIsvara? These commentaries range from definingIsvara from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[118][119] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept ofIsvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[120]
Patanjali definesIsvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष,puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[121]
This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics ofIsvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट,aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश,klesha), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म,karma), one's life fruits (विपाक,vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[122][123]
Among variousBhakti path practicing sects of Hinduism, which built upon theYoga school of Hinduism, Isvara only means a specific deity such asShiva.
Svayam Bhagavan, aSanskrit theological term, is the concept of absolute representation of the monotheistic God asBhagavan himself withinHinduism. The theological interpretation ofsvayam bhagavān differs with each tradition and the translated from theSanskrit language, the term literary means "Bhagavan Himself" or "directlyBhagavan."[124] Earlier commentators such asMadhvacharya translated the termSvayam Bhagavan as "he who hasbhagavatta"; meaning "he who has the quality of possessing all good qualities".[125] The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna andVishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as theBhagavata Purana, and also within other sects of Vaishnavism.
The theological interpretation ofSvayam Bhagavān differs with each tradition and the literal translation of the term has been understood in several distinct ways. Translated from theSanskrit language, the term literary means "Bhagavan Himself" or "directlyBhagavan".[124] Others have translated it simply as "theLord Himself".[126]
Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition often translates it within its perspective asprimeval Lord ororiginal Personality of Godhead, but also considers the terms such asSupreme Personality of Godhead andSupreme God as an equivalent to the termSvayam Bhagavan, and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu,Narayana and many of their associatedAvatars.[127][128] It should be however noted that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avatars, this is only one of the names of god ofVaishnavism, who is also known asNarayana,Vasudeva and Krishna and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy inVaishnavism.[129]
Within Hinduism,Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.[130][131]Krishnaism is a tradition related to Vaishnavism wherein Krishna is consideredSvayam Bhagavan, meaning 'God Himself', and this title is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme God.[132][133] Krishnaitetraditions ofHinduism consider him to be the source of allavatars, and the source ofVishnu himself, or to be the same asNarayana. As such, he is therefore regarded asSvayam Bhagavan.[134][135][125]
In other sub-traditions of Vaishnavism,Krishna is one of many aspects andavatars of Vishnu (Rama is another, for example), recognized and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.[130] Vaishnavism is one of the earliest single God focussed traditions that derives its heritage from theVedas.[134][135][141]
When followers of Vishnu-centeredsampradayas of Vaishnavism describe Krishna as "Svayam Bhagavan" it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of allavatars and is considered to be the "paripurna Avatara", complete in all respects and the same as the original.[142] According to themKrishna is described in theBhagavata Purana as thePurnavatara (or complete manifestation) of the Bhagavan, while other incarnations are called partial.
InSri Vaishnavism, Krishna is viewed as one of the manyavatars of Narayana or Vishnu.[143][129] The Sri Vaishnavism sub-tradition reveres goddess Lakshmi with god Vishnu as equivalent,[144] and traces it roots its roots to the ancientVedas andPancaratra texts in Sanskrit.[145]
^[a]Hark, Lisa; DeLisser, Horace (2011).Achieving Cultural Competency. John Wiley & Sons.Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman. [b]Toropov & Buckles 2011: The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rites in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality. [c]Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff (2007).An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. Liturgical Press.While Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas.
^"not sublatable",[96] the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated (German: "aufheben").
^Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict,ISBN978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008
^MK Gandhi,The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
^Chakravarti, Sitansu S. (1991)."The Hindu Perspective".Hinduism, a Way of Life.Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 70–71.ISBN978-81-208-0899-7.OCLC925707936.According toHinduism, different religions are but alternate ways toward the same spiritual goal. Thus, although spirituality is a necessary quest for human beings, the religion one follows does not have to be the same for everyone. [...] The first Hindu scripture, theRigveda, dating back to at least 4.000 years, says: "Truth is one, though the wise call it by different names." TheMahabharata, which includes theGita, is replete with sayings meaning that religious streams, though separate, head toward the same ocean of divinity.
^Ganesh Tagare (2002), The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120818927, pages 16–19
^abcdLeeming, David A. (2014). "Brahman". InLeeming, David A. (ed.).Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion (2nd ed.).Boston:Springer Verlag. p. 197.doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9052.ISBN978-1-4614-6087-9.ForHindus, especially those in theAdvaita Vedanta tradition,Brahman is the undifferentiated reality underlying all existence. Brahman is the eternal first cause present everywhere and nowhere, beyond time and space, the indefinableAbsolute. The gods are incarnations of Brahman. It can be said that everything that is Brahman. And it can be argued that Brahman is amonotheistic concept or at least amonistic one, since all gods – presumably of any tradition – are manifestations of Brahman, real only because Brahman exists.
^U Murthy (1979), Samskara, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195610796, page 150
^abDissanayake, Wimal (1993)."The Body in Indian Theory and Practice". In Kasulis, Thomas P.; Ames, Roger T.; Dissanayake, Wimal (eds.).Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice. SUNY Series: The Body in Culture, History, and Religion.Albany, New York:SUNY Press. p. 39.ISBN0-7914-1079-X.OCLC24174772.TheUpanishads form the foundations ofHindu philosophical thought, and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity ofAtman andBrahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self. [...] If we adhere to the thought that the Brahman is the cosmic principle governing the universe and Atman as its physical correlate, the essence of Upanishadic thought can be succinctly stated in the formula Brahman = Atman.
^Paul Deussen,Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1,Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120814684, pages 67-85, 227, 284, 308, 318, 361-366, 468, 600-601, 667, 772
^Bruce Trigger (2003), Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study, Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0521822459, pages 473-474
^Charles Taliaferro and Elsa J. Marty (2010), A Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion, Bloomsbury Academic,ISBN978-1441111975, pages 98-99
^Eric Ackroyd (2009).Divinity in Things: Religion Without Myth. Sussex Academic Press. p. 78.ISBN978-1-84519-333-1., Quote: "The jealous God who says, "Thou shalt have no other gods but me" belongs to the Jewish-Christian-Muslim tradition, but not to the Hindu tradition, which tolerates all gods but is not a monotheism, monism, yes, but not monotheism."
^Guy Beck (2005), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791464151, page 169 note 11
^Bruce Trigger (2003), Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study, Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0521822459, pages 441-442,Quote: [Historically...] people perceived far fewer differences between themselves and the gods than the adherents of modern monotheistic religions. Deities were not thought to be omniscient or omnipotent and were rarely believed to be changeless or eternal."
^abP. T. Raju (2006),Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge,ISBN978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
^Fowler 2002, pp. 49–55 (in Upanishads), 318–319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246–248 and 252–255 (in Advaita), 342–343 (in Dvaita), 175–176 (in Samkhya-Yoga).
^abFor dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010),Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0199738724, pages 51–58, 111–115; For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006),Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35
^Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007),A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791470824, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All
^Thomas Padiyath (2014),The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter,ISBN978-3110342550, pages 155–157
^abWilliam Wainwright (2012),Concepts of GodArchived 23 March 2015 at theWayback Machine,Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: 13 June 2015)
^abcdeKaren Pechilis Prentiss (2014),The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195351903, page 21
^abDavid Lorenzen (1996),Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791428054, page 2
^Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120832329, pages 38-39
^Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aphorisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93; Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126-129
^Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0-7914-3815-2, page 86
^Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass,ISBN978-8120832329, pages 31-45
^abcGupta, Ravi M. (2007).Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami. Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-40548-5.
^abDimock Jr, E.C.; Dimock, E.C. (1989).The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal. University of Chicago Press.page 132
^Knapp, S. (2005).The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -. iUniverse. "Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies."page 161
^Bhagawan Swaminarayan bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981. p. 154: ...Shri Vallabhacharya [and] Shri Swaminarayan... Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotieon (Nirguna Bhakti), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna.New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154, Sahajānanda,Vedanta. 1981
^abElkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986).Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.
^Flood, Gavin D. (1996).An introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 341.ISBN978-0-521-43878-0. Retrieved21 April 2008.gavin flood."Early Vaishnava worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagavatas, while Narayana was worshipped by the Pancaratra sect."
^"Sapthagiri". tirumala.org. Archived fromthe original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved3 May 2008.Parashara Maharishi,Vyasa's father had devoted the largest Amsa (part) in Vishnu Purana to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara theParipoorna Avatara. And according to Lord Krishna's own (instructions)upadesha, "he who knows (the secrets of) His (Krishna's) Janma (birth) and Karma (actions) will not remain insamsara (punar janma naiti- maam eti) and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil." (BG 4.9).Parasara Maharishi ends up Amsa 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (Vishnu Purana .5.38.94)
^Lester, Robert C (1966). "Rāmānuja and Śrī-vaiṣṇavism: The Concept of Prapatti or Śaraṇāgati".History of Religions.5 (2):266–269.doi:10.1086/462526.JSTOR1062115.S2CID162224010.
Brannigan, Michael (2009),Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, Rowman & Littlefield,ISBN978-0739138465
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Matchett, Freda (2000),Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana, Surrey: Routledge,ISBN978-0-7007-1281-6
Potter, Karl H. (2008),The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
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