Asluice or conduit built beneath a coastaldike, with a hinged gate or a one-way valve that closes during high tide but remains open during low tide, preventing salt water from flowing into the sluice and flooding the land behind the dike while allowing fresh water precipitation and irrigationrunoff to drain from the land into the sea. The term may also refer to a method ofland reclamation which relies on these gated sluices to convert tidal flats and coastal marshes into land suitable for agriculture. Aboiteau systems are usually installed several seasons prior to planting to allow time for natural flows of fresh water to drain through the soil and reduce its salinity. This method is practiced in areas with extremely high tidal amplitudes, particularly Atlantic Canada, where large tracts of coastal land would otherwise be rendered useless by regular tidal inundation.[1]
Apesticide intended to kill or incapacitate members of the arthropod subclassAcari, which includesticks andmites, either by targeting adults or by preventing the growth and development of their eggs or larvae. Acaricides specifically helpful against ticks may also be known asixodicides and those specific to mites may be known asmiticides. Though ticks and mites are not technically insects, in common usage, acaricides are sometimes referred to asinsecticides.
A unit of area traditionally defined as the area of onechain (66feet) by onefurlong (660 feet), equivalent to 43,560square feet (0.001563 sq mi; 4,047 m2), or about 0.40hectare.
acreage
A quantity of land; severalacres considered collectively, united by their ownership, management, usage, geographical location, or some other unifying feature.[2]
A customary unit of volume defined as the volume of oneacre of surface area to a depth of onefoot, commonly used in the United States about large-scale water or soil resources. One acre-foot is equal to 43,560cubic feet (1,233 m3).
A type ofbroadcast seeding in which large quantities of seed are dropped fromaircraft flying over crop fields. Aircraft can be useful for quickly seeding vast expanses of land or wherever the terrain makes conventional ground-based seeding methods difficult or impractical, e.g., in marshy or flooded areas, where they are commonly used for sowingrice paddies.
Thecultivation of plants with the roots suspended in an air or mist environment rather than in soil or a solidaggregate medium, usually inside a closed or partially closed chamber where the properties of the air can be easily controlled. Plants are typically supported by the chamber itself or with foam supports ortrellises. Sometimes, only the roots are inside the growth chamber; stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits may or may not be. The primary benefits of aeroponics are increased gas exchange in theroot zone and reduced access by pests and pathogens borne by solid or liquid growth media. It is often practiced in research contexts. Aeroponics is sometimes considered a subclass ofhydroponics since water is still delivered to the plant via atomized droplets from a mist sprayer. However, unlike conventional hydroponics, the roots are not continuously suspended in flowing water.
A social or political philosophy that values rural society as superior to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker. Agrarianism argues in favor offarming as a way of life that can shape ideal social values.
The business of agricultural production, including the entire range of activities and disciplines encompassed by modern food and fiber production chains and those agents and institutions that influence them.
Any association of farmers or agricultural businesses who voluntarily pool their resources to meet their common agricultural needs and goals by cooperating in a jointly owned enterprise. Agricultural cooperatives may be distinguished between "service" cooperatives, which provide inputs for agricultural production (seeds, fertilizers, fuels, etc.) or transportation and marketing services to members who run their farms individually, and "production" cooperatives, in which members run their farms jointly using shared land, machinery, or other resources; an example of the latter iscollective farming.
The annual or seasonal cycle of activities related to the production of a particular agricultural product, especially the growth and harvest of plantcrops, inclusive of all steps normally involved in the complete process from initial preparations (e.g.tilling,sowing,fertilizing, andirrigating) through sale and distribution of the finished product (e.g.harvesting, storage, packing, and marketing).
A branch ofeconomics concerned with the application of economic theory in optimizing the production and distribution of food, fiber, and other products of agriculture.
The application of new knowledge and techniques obtained through scientific research to agricultural practices by educating farmers and agricultural communities, with the goals of improving the efficiency andproductivity of agriculture, improving living standards in rural areas, and raising awareness of environmental issues. The term encompasses a variety of educational and outreach activities organized by professional educators from a wide range of disciplines, often with an emphasis onagricultural marketing, land management,sustainability, food safety, and public health.
Anyfence or barrier used to keep domestic or wild animals (or humans)inside oroutside of an agricultural area. Fencing materials and designs vary widely depending on terrain and the kinds of animals they are intended to deter, thoughwooden logs,barbed wire, andelectrified fences are common. They must often be continuous for long distances to surround farms or pastures. In many places, ranchers are required by law to build fences to enclose their grazinglivestock within designatedrangeland; in others, livestock areallowed to roam freely, and responsibility for fencing belongs to those who wish to prevent animals from accessing their land.
Any land devoted solely toagriculture, i.e., the deliberate and systematic reproduction of living organisms to produce commodities that humans can use. In the broadest sense, agricultural land may also include certain types used only partially or seasonally for agricultural purposes, such aspastures and wild forests. Colloquially, the term is often used interchangeably withfarmland,cropland, andarable land, though these terms may also be considered technically distinct.
The mechanical or electrical tools, devices, and structures used infarming or any other type of agriculture. The broadest definition includes handheld power tools, but in general usage the term implies huge motorized machines, particularlytractors and the many types offarm implements which they tow and/or supply power to. Themechanization of agricultural tasks is a defining element ofindustrial agriculture.
A measure of the economicproductivity of a given quantity ofagricultural land (or any otheragricultural input), typically expressed as the ratio ofoutputs to inputs. In modern agricultural industries, "output" is often quantified as themarket value of the agricultural product at the end of the production chain (i.e., immediately before its purchase by a consumer).
Alsoagriscience orag science, and often pluralized as inagricultural sciences.
The application of scientific methods toagriculture, or the study of agriculture as a scientific discipline. It is a multidisciplinary field encompassing all elements of the natural, economic, and social sciences which are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. A professional in this field may be called an agricultural scientist oragriculturist.
The science and art ofcultivatingplants,animals, or other living organisms in order to produce any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly food, fibers, fuels, and raw materials.
Any primarily agricultural operation or activity that brings visitors to afarm orranch, either for direct-to-consumer sales (e.g.farm stands and "You-Pick" operations), education, hospitality, recreation, or entertainment.
The simultaneous use of land area for both solar energy production and agriculture, by installingsolar panels in the same spaces where crops are grown or animals are raised.
Solar panels above paddy fields in Japan, an example ofagrivoltaics
The study ofecology as it pertains to agriculture, particularly the application of knowledge about ecological processes to agricultural production systems.
Anecosystem that supports an agricultural production system, such as in a farm or garden; the network ofecological interactions that influences and is influenced by the human practice ofagriculture. Agroecosystems are the basic unit of study inagroecology.
The combination of knowledge and practices of agriculture andforestry, resulting in a system of land use in which forest trees or shrubs are grown around or among agriculturalcrops orpastureland, with the goal of enhancing the functionality andsustainability of afarming system. Agroforestry shares principles withintercropping but may involve complex ecological interactions between hundreds of species.
A specialized branch ofaquaculture involving the cultivation ofalgae, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, including food ingredients,fertilizers, colorants and dyes, pharmaceuticals, and chemical feedstock.
Any machine powered by an animal. Domestic animals, especially horses, mules, donkeys, oxen, and dogs, have frequently been trained by humans to provide power for variousagricultural machinery and operations such asploughing andmilling.
A standard measure, based on feed requirements, used to combine various classes oflivestock according to size, weight, age, and intended use. On federal lands in the United States, one animal unit represents one maturecow,bull,steer,heifer, horse, ormule, or fivesheep orgoats, all over six months of age.[3]
Any agricultural practice or farming method that does not make use of animals or animal products, such as farmed animalmanures. Animal-free agriculture may useorganic or non-organic techniques.
The maintenance of colonies ofbees, commonly in human-madebeehives, by humans for any of a variety of purposes, including collectinghoney or other products created by bees,pollinating crops, and breeding bees for sale. A location where bees are kept is called anapiary and a person who practices apiculture is called anapiarist orbeekeeper.
A variant ofhydroponic agriculture that recycles nutrient-rich waters sourced from anaquaculture operation and uses them to feed hydroponically grown plants.
Any land which is capable of producing viable agriculturalcrops in its present state, and which does not require substantial clearing or otherimprovements apart from routinetillage operations.[4] This may include both natural, unaltered landscapes that are fertile enough to immediately support agriculture, as well as land that has been made arable by previous modification and cultivation. Colloquially, the term is often used interchangeably withfarmland,cropland, andagricultural land, though these terms may also be considered technically distinct.
The process by which humans useanimal breeding andplant breeding toselectively control the development of particularphenotypic traits in organisms by choosing which individual organisms will reproduce and create offspring. Artificial selection involves the deliberate exploitation of knowledge aboutgenetics andreproductive biology in the hope of producing desirable characteristics in descendant organisms. It is widely practiced inagriculture, but it may also be unintentional and may produce unintended results.
The fat covering the back of a live animal or a carcass, especiallybeef cattle. The amount of backfat on an animal is often used as a metric for estimatingyield before it isslaughtered.[2]
1. A large, cylindrical or rectangular bundle of compressedhay,straw, cotton,wool, or other plant or animal fibers which have been compacted and bound together by twine, wire, netting, or plastic wrap for easy movement and handling. Bales are usually made by machines known asbalers.[6]
2. A unit of measurement of hay, equal to 10flakes or approximately 70–90 pounds (32–41 kilograms).
Atractor-drawnimplement which automates the action of completely surroundingbales ofhay with plastic, triggering the natural anoxic fermentation that turns hay intosilage.
A type ofagricultural fencing consisting of two to five metal rungs or strands, each made from paired steel wires twisted together, with sharp, pointed, nail-like barbs attached at regular intervals. The barbs are intended to poke or scratchlivestock and wild animals, discouraging them from climbing or destroying the fence.[2] Barbed wire is widely popular on rangeland and in many other contexts because it is much cheaper and easier to erect than alternative types of fencing.
A large agricultural building serving any of a wide variety of purposes, especially as storage space forhay,grain, harvestedcrops,animal feed, or farm equipment ormachinery, or as a shelter to houselivestock.[7]
A fenced-in lot or pen adjacent to abarn, used especially to enclose livestock.[2]
barrow
A young male domesticpig that has been castrated.[5]: 27
bearing acres
Agricultural land oracreage on which plants are being cultivated and are of sufficient maturity to produce a commercially viablecrop (even if they are not yet producing at their full capacity).[2]
Cattle bred or raised specifically for their meat, known asbeef, in contrast to cattle raised for other purposes, such as fortheir milk or so that they can be employed asworking animals.
Describing a perennial crop that alternates from year to year betweenextremely productive growing seasons with very highyields and extremely unproductive growing seasons where yields are relatively low and harvests are small. Many fruit trees, including apples, pears, mangoes, and apricots, as well as coffee, bear flowers and fruits that exhibit this irregular production.
A fine-grained, porous charcoal produced from organic matter via pyrolysis (i.e. in low-temperature, anoxic conditions) rather than standard combustion. It is often used as a soil amendment to increase soil fertility and sequester carbon.[7]
A type of alternative agriculture which incorporates holistic ecological approaches and aspects oforganic andintegrated farming but also emphasizes various esoteric perspectives, including spiritual and mystical beliefs about nature. The efficacy of biodynamic agricultural techniques lacks scientific evidence, and the practice has been labeled apseudoscience.
Any viable microorganism or naturally occurring chemical compound which directly or indirectly affects plant growth, development, production, and/or yield quality (e.g.organic fertilizers andbiofertilizers) and thus has the potential to reduce or replace use of conventional chemicalfertilizers orpesticides.[8]
A substance containing living microorganisms such as bacteria and algae which, when applied to seeds, plant parts, or soil, colonize plant tissues or therhizosphere surrounding the roots and promote the growth and health of the host plant by increasing the supply orbioavailability of useful nutrients.[9] Biofertilizers serve the same purpose as conventionalfertilizers, though instead of delivering nutrients directly to plant tissues they work indirectly by stimulating natural processes (e.g.fixing nitrogen andsolubilizing phosphorus) which cause essential nutrients or other growth-promoting substances to accumulate in the local microenvironment; nearby plant cells can then uptake and use these nutrients for themselves. The presence of symbiotic microorganisms can replenish depleted nutrients, increasesoil organic matter, and improvesoil fertility, making them asustainable alternative to the application of synthetic fertilizers and otheragrichemicals.
Theselectivebreeding orgenetic engineering of edible plant crops with the goal of increasing theirnutritional value. Though many foods are chemicallyfortified or enriched with specific micronutrient additives such asiron andvitamin D duringpost-harvest processing, biofortification instead attempts to cultivate plant varieties which naturally produce high concentrations of such nutrients while growing, such that the resulting crops already contain high concentrations at the time ofharvest.
Anyfuel produced from recently living biomass, as opposed to fuels produced by slow geological processes such asfossil fuels. Biofuels such asbioethanol andbiodiesel are commonly produced from agriculturalenergy crops.
A variant ofsoil solarization in which compost or organic amendments are added to the soil before it is covered with transparent plastic, which can promote increased microbial activity and thereby contribute to small but significant increases in soil temperature, potentially speeding up and improving the efficiency of the solarization process.[10]
A byproduct made from the fresh blood of slaughtered animals,[7] commonly used as anorganic fertilizer for cultivated plants. It is rich in crude protein and amino acids.
Also renderedboard-foot and abbreviated asBDFT orBF.
A unit of volume oflumber, defined as the volume of a board or plank of wood that is onefoot long, one foot wide, and oneinch thick, i.e. 12 in × 12 in × 1 in (305 mm × 305 mm × 25.4 mm), which is equivalent to1⁄12 of acubic foot (ft3), 144 in3, or 2,360 cm3. The board foot is used to measure rough lumber (before drying andplaning) as well as planed lumber.
The process by which certain crops cultivated for their leaves or roots produce flowers or other reproductive parts prematurely, before the crop is intended to beharvested, in an attempt toreproduce sexually and generateseeds. This necessarily diverts resources away from its edible or usable non-reproductive parts, which can negatively impact their flavor and texture and the quality of the harvest in general. The phenomenon is of particular concern in certain annual or biennial vegetable crops, includinglettuce,spinach,cabbage,onions,leeks,carrots, andbeetroot. Warm temperatures and changes in day length can both trigger thephytohormonal changes that cause bolting, and it may also occur as part of the plant's natural response to stress. In many species it manifests as the sudden rapid growth of unusually elongated stems which, if not removed, will produce aninflorescence.[12]
A byproduct made from animal bones which have been steamed under high pressure and ground into a powder. A rich source of nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium,[7] bone meal is commonly used as anorganic fertilizer for cultivated plants.
border irrigation
A type offlood irrigation in which a gently sloping field is divided into narrow strips by a series of low, parallel ridges of soil which align with the direction of the slope. Water is supplied to the upper edge or border of each strip, between the ridges, which act as levees to guide the flow of water as it moves down the length of the field by gravity. This method is useful for efficiently irrigating large areas of closely growing crops as well as certainrow crops andorchards where topography and soils are suitable.[13]
A technique for marking and identifyinglivestock in which a permanent scar, known as abrand, is made in the animal'shide, traditionally by applying an extremely hot or coldbranding iron which has been shaped or placed in such a way as to create a unique, specific symbol or series of numbers, usually for the purpose of indicating ownership.[2] Branding may be used in conjunction with other forms of animal identification, includingearmarking, ear tagging, andradio-frequency identification (RFID).
A handheld metal tool with one end shaped into a letter, number, or other symbol, intended as a unique identifier, which is heated, chilled, or electrified and then pressed against the skin of an animal in a process known asbranding.
A geographic region which, because it has a climate and soils well suited tograin farming, produces a large proportion of the total grain (or, by extension, other food products) consumed by a population or economy.
A method ofseeding that involves scattering seed over a relatively large and imprecise area, either by hand or mechanically, as opposed toprecision seeding andhydroseeding. Broadcast seeding is easier and faster than seeding inrows but usually requires more seed and may result in overcrowded and uneven distributions of plant cover. It is generally reserved for plants that do not have strict spacing or depth requirements or that are easily thinned after germination.
A handheld farming tool consisting of a series of long metal tines attached to a horizontal crossbar, operated with two long handles extending from either end, which is used to manually break up densely packed soil such ashardpan without inverting or mixing the soil layers and thereby preserving its structure, often as part ofno-till orreduced-tillseedbed preparation.
A chicken of either sex that is bred and raised specifically for meat production.
brood
1. A mature female animal, often ahen, which is kept for breeding purposes because of her strong mothering and nurturing instincts.[2]
2. Inapiculture, abee brood, the collective name for the eggs, larvae, and/or pupae of a bee colony; or, more generally, the young offspring of any animal.[2]
1. An instinctual behavior whereby female birds sit on aclutch of eggs to incubate them prior to hatching, often for very long periods of time without eating or drinking and generally characterized by the near-total devotion of the mother's time and energy to caring for the eggs. Many poultry species will naturally attempt to brood newly laid eggs if they are not collected first.
2. The practice inpoultry farming of raising young chickens or turkeys in environments with warm, carefully controlled temperatures during the first few weeks of life.[5]
brown manure
Withered or decaying plant material which is used as amulch or anorganic fertilizer simply by leaving it todecompose on the soil surface (rather thantilling it into the soil while still green, as withgreen manure). Brown manure may consist of uprooted or dehiscedcrop residues or even whole plants which are specifically grown for this purpose and then sprayed with a selectiveherbicide to cause them to wilt and die. This practice, known asbrown manuring, is often employed as ano-till alternative to other fertilizing techniques.
A type of herbivory in which the herbivore feeds on leaves, soft shoots, or fruits of relatively tall, woody plants such as shrubs and trees, as opposed tograzing, which involves feeding on grasses and other low-lying vegetation. Browsing may also refer to feeding on any non-grasses, including both woody and herbaceous dicots.
A young domesticbovine animal of either sex (i.e. acow orbull), generally weighing less than 500 pounds.[2] The term is usually applied from birth toweaning (which typically occurs around nine months of age), though it is also sometimes used until the animal is ayearling. Calves may be raised to become adult cattle, but are also commonlyslaughtered for their meat, calledveal, or theirhides. The young of many other species, including bison, water buffalo, camels, and deer, are also called calves.
In thepoultry egg industry, the process of examining eggs for quality and defects by holding them in front of a bright light source, illuminating the internal contents of the egg through the translucent shell without having to break it open.[5]: 34
The practice offarming (or of agricultural activities in general) for the purpose of providing or promoting mental or physical health or well-being, especially as a form of therapy or to aid convalescence or for social or educational services.
carryover
The supply of a farm commodity that is not yet used at the end of a marketing season and subsequently stored and made available for sale in the next marketing season. An excessively large carryover may be considered asurplus, and may cause prices to fall.[3]
2. A unit of mass or volume representing a standardized size of these containers, equal to 425pounds (193kilograms) or4⁄5US bushel (6.4US dry gallons), respectively.[2]
Anycrop that is grown so that it can be marketed and sold for profit, as opposed to asubsistence crop, which is grown for the grower's own use. While historically cash crops have often been only a small part of a farm's totalyield, almost all modern crops in developed nations are grown primarily for revenue.
The surgical removal or chemical impairment of thetestes of a male animal, which prevents reproduction (irreversibly in the case of surgery, though potentially reversibly in drug-dependentchemical castration) and also greatly reduces the production of certain hormones, particularlyandrogens. It is commonly performed onlivestock as a method ofbirth control, to mitigate aggressive or sexual behaviors, or to improve the commercial value of certain products harvested from the mature animal; e.g.steers are usually castrated at a young age in order to prevent age-related hormonal changes that would otherwise make them more difficult tofatten or alter the quality of their meat.[5] The female equivalent is calledspaying. See alsogelding andneutering.
Any fast-growingcrop that is grown between successive plantings of a primary crop on the same land. Its practice, known ascatch cropping, is a type ofsuccession planting.
A group of large,domesticated,bovid mammals of the genusBos and especially the speciesBos taurus, which are commonly raised aslivestock for their meat (known asbeef), theirmilk, theirhides, theirdung (used asmanure or as fuel), or asdraft animals or riding animals. Mature female cattle are known ascows, mature male cattle asbulls, and young cattle of either sex ascalves, though colloquially "cow" is often used to refer to all bovine animals, irrespective of age or sex.
The cyclical fluctuation of supply and prices observed incattle markets, analogous to thepork cycle. In the United States, the cattle cycle refers to the approximately 10-year period during which the industry-wide population ofbeef cattle is alternately expanded and reduced over several consecutive years in response to perceived changes in profitability by beef producers. Low prices occur when cattle numbers or beef supplies are high, precipitating several years of herd liquidation; as cattle numbers decline and supplies diminish, prices gradually begin to rise along with renewed demand, causing cattle producers to begin breeding cattle and expanding their herds again.[3]
Thecultivation and production of agricultural products fromcell cultures grown in a laboratory, such ascultured meat, by using techniques of molecular biology and biochemistry to directly synthesize the complex mixture of proteins, fats, and other substances which are found naturally in living tissues. Most of the industry is focused on cultivating animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs by growing animal tissues from stem cellsin vitro and then simulating the same series of biochemical processes that occurs naturally in actual animal bodies, as opposed to raising andslaughtering farmedlivestock as in conventionalanimal husbandry, which has long been criticized for its negative impacts on the environment, human health,food security, and animal welfare. Cellular agriculture has therefore been championed as asustainable and ethical alternative, though the necessary procedures and infrastructure are usually highly specific and technical.
The periodic collection, processing, and dissemination of statistical data regarding agricultural activities within a country, state, county, or other polity. Agricultural censuses attempt to accurately measure and classify metrics such as number and size of farms or other holdings, types of land tenure and land use, cropacreage, livestock numbers, agriculturalinputs and expenses,productivity and profits, types and uses of facilities andmachinery, demographics of owners and workers, product quality, and sustainability, among others. In the United States and many other places, censuses are conducted at the holding level every five years.[2]
A method ofcrop irrigation in which a long line ofsprinklers mounted upon or dangling from a metal frame with multiple sets of wheels rotates slowly around a pivot at the center of a field, watering a very large circular area centered on this point. Water is usually supplied by a well or an underground pipeline near the pivot, and the wheeled frame is propelled by hydraulic pressure or electric motors. A typical center-pivot line is 400 metres (1,300 feet) long and capable of irrigating a 125-acre (51 ha) circle within a 160-acre (65 ha) square, covering about 78% of the surface area; some systems can also irrigate the corners of the square by means of anend gun at the end of the line or a trailing segment of frame that swings out into the corner areas.[14] Modern center-pivot systems are often fully automated and programmable for specific rates of rotation, variable water distribution patterns, and otherprecision controls.
Thiscenter-pivot irrigation line on a bean field in Cuba takes 18–20 hours to make one complete circle.
Any member of thegrass family cultivated for the edible components of itsgrain, composed of theendosperm,germ, andbran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself (the "cereal grain"). Comparepseudocereal.
Plant seeds that have been approved by a certifying agency or agricultural retailer as meeting established standards of quality and productivity, e.g. ofgermination, varietal purity, sustainable sourcing, and/or freedom from contamination with disease-causing pathogens,weed seeds, and synthetic chemicals.[14] See alsoregistered seed.
The dry, scaly, protective casing around the seeds ofcerealgrains, or any other similar plant material. Chaff is generally inedible by humans but is often used asfodder forlivestock or is ploughed into the soil as a type ofgreen manure.
chemical fallow
The use of chemicalherbicides to prevent the growth of vegetation onfallow land.[14]
A type ofplough consisting of a long row of multiple shanks which break and loosen soil to depths of 46 centimetres (18 in) without inverting or turning it,[7] leaving accumulatedcrop residues on the soil surface instead of burying them. Chisel plows are used to plow very deeply (such as to break uphardpan) without disturbing the organic matter present on the surface, in a process sometimes calledchiseling, often as part oflow-till orno-till practices.
A bell-shaped glass or plastic covering placed over an individual plant to protect it from cold temperatures, used especially ingardening.Row cover serves the same function on a larger scale. See alsocold frame.
An enclosure with a transparent glass or plastic roof, built low to the ground, that is designed to protect juvenile plants and small gardens from cold or wet weather. Cold frames are used toextend thegrowing season by acting as miniaturegreenhouses.
Any type of agricultural production in which multiple farmers or producers run their holdings as a joint enterprise using shared land, water resources, machinery, equipment, or other agricultural inputs in order to meet common needs and goals. Communal farms may be either voluntaryagricultural cooperatives or mandatory state farms owned and operated directly by a central government.
A largeagricultural machine designed to efficientlyharvest a variety of differentgraincrops by combining three traditionally separate harvesting operations –reaping,threshing, andwinnowing – into a single mechanical process. The harvested grain is stored either in an on-board compartment or offloaded into a separate storage bin, while the remainingstraw and other undesirableresidue is typically discarded on to the field.
This cross-sectional schematic shows the flow of material through a typicalcombine harvester: the stalks of mature crop plants arecut by a series of blades at the front of the combine and conveyed to the interior of the machine (red); the useful grain (yellow) is thenloosened andseparated from the cut stalks and retained in an internal storage compartment, while all remainingcrop residues, includingchaff,husks,straw, etc. (green), are discarded onto the field behind the combine.
Any mixture of ingredients, commonly decomposing plant and food waste and/or other recycled organic materials, that is used tofertilize and improve soils. Such mixtures are rich in plant nutrients andbeneficial organisms which can increase soil fertility and aid plant growth by acting as a naturalsoil conditioner, increasing thehumic content of the soil, and suppressing pathogens. Often compost is made simply by allowing gatheredgreen andbrown waste to decompose naturally in open-air piles for many months, though it can also be made with more precise measurements and controls.
Anytillage practice which aims to reduce soil erosion and preserve natural soil conditions, generally by leaving significant amounts ofcrop residue to cover previously harvested agricultural land; such practices can also enhancebiological pest control and reduce fuel consumption andsoil compaction. Conservation tillage includesno-till,strip-till, andmulch-till systems.
The practice of cultivating plants by growing them in containers or pots rather than planting them in the ground. The containers are generally small, portable, plastic or ceramic pots or trays which limit the soil space available to the plant's roots but have the advantage of allowing the gardener to easily move the plant to avoid inclement weather or other suboptimal conditions.
A method of cultivation whereby crops areharvested more or less continuously throughout an extended or indefinitegrowing season, without any significant pause or interruption such as for replanting. For most conventionally grown plant and animal crops, production is limited to specific times of year by the need for suitable weather or for periods of inactivity during which soils can recover fertility and producers can resupplyinputs and otherwise prepare for the start of the nextproduction cycle, meaning the harvested products are only available to consumers for a few weeks or months at the end of each growing season. In some places, however, where the climate is largely consistent throughout the year, or wherever labor and inputs are consistently available, certain crops may be grown, harvested, and sold during unusually long seasons or even year-round. Some seasonal crops can also have their harvest windowsextended by growing them in highlycontrolled environments or by deliberately staggering planting times so that different groups of plants are of different ages and thus one or more groups are ready for harvest at any given time of year.
The practice ofploughing and/orplanting a sloping field by following its natural contour lines, such that the resultingfurrows andcrop rows curve around the slope perpendicular to the direction of the force of gravity, with each remaining at approximately the same elevation for its entire length. This orientation helps preventsurface runoff andsoil erosion by reducing the velocity with which water and soil moves down the slope, minimizing the formation of rills and gullies during heavy precipitation and allowing more time for the water to settle into the soil. Contour farming also reduces the runoff ofagrichemicals, power consumption, and wear on machines, thereby increasing production efficiency.
Farming or other agricultural production carried out on the basis of an agreement between the buyer or consumer and the farmer or producer. Contracts typically involve the producer agreeing to supply certain quantities of a crop or other product according to quality standards and delivery requirements specified by the buyer, and the buyer agreeing to buy the product, often ata price established in advance; the buyer often also agrees to support the producer in various ways, e.g. by supplying inputs, assisting with land preparation, providing production advice, and helping to transport the finished product.
A farming practice which attempts to manage and reduce the damage done to cultivated soils by repeated passes of heavyagricultural machinery such astractors over the same area of land, particularlysoil compaction, which often has negative consequences for numerous aspects of crop production.
Any agricultural production that occurs in a specialized, enclosed space, typically indoors, where all variables affecting production (e.g. temperature and light intensity) can be carefully managed throughout the production cycle so as to provide an optimal environment that maximizesyield or efficiency or some other production target. Indoor growing spaces such asgreenhouses are common examples, and the practice is central tourban agriculture and agricultural research.
Traditional, intensive methods oftillage using amouldboardplough,disc harrow, or other powered implement to mix and completely invert the entirety of the soil surface prior to or during planting.[2][17] Conventional methods usually involve repeated passes of heavy machinery over the same field and tend to burycrop residues left by previous harvests; subsequent use of other implements is often necessary to smooth the soil surface.[7] These practices contrast withconservation tillage andlow-till methods, which aim to minimize soil disturbance.
A method offorest management by which the trunks and stems of young trees are regularly cut down to near ground level, exploiting the ability of many tree species to regenerate new growth fromliving stumps. After a number of years of growth, the intended products of the coppiced tree are harvested and the cycle begins anew.Pollarding is a similar process carried out at higher levels on the tree; both practices are important techniques insilviculture.
The practice of large-scale agriculture onfarms owned or greatly influenced by corporations or large private businesses. The concept includes not only corporate ownership of farmland and the means of production, but also the roles such companies play in influencing agricultural education, research, and public policy through lobbying and funding initiatives.
Amachine that automates the process ofginningcotton, separating cotton fibers from their seeds much more quickly and efficiently than traditional manual separation.
Any plant that is planted as soil cover rather than for the purpose of being harvested. Cover crops may be used to manage soil erosion,soil fertility, water content,weeds, pests, agricultural diseases, and biodiversity on land that is repeatedly farmed. They are commonly off-season crops planted after harvesting acash crop in order to help conserve the integrity of the land through afallow period.
A bell worn around the neck offree-roaminglivestock, including but not limited tocattle, so that ranchers and herders can keep track of the animal's movements via the sound of the bell, which can be useful in hilly landscapes or vast plains when the animal is grazing out of view.
Aranch which specializes in producing youngbeef cattle, maintaining a permanent herd ofcows in order to breed and rear theircalves and then sell them to other operations while still young, either to other ranches where they areraised into adults or toslaughterhouses for theirmeat orhides.
Adairy operation or facility which processes rawmilk and/or cream into finished dairy products, such as consumer-grade milk, butter, cheese, and ice cream, and prepares them for market.
The practice of supplementing the diet of young livestock which are still nursing, usuallybeef calves andswine, withprepared feed. This may be done in order to introduce the animals to feed beforeweaning or to facilitate quickerfattening, but is only cost-effective when the price of animal feed is very low.
Anyplant,animal, or other product of a living organism that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. The term may refer to the organism or species itself, theharvested parts, or the harvest in a more refined state. Most crops arecultivated inagriculture and its sub-disciplines, commonly (but not exclusively) as food for humans orfodder forlivestock; other crops are gathered from the wild.
Insurance purchased by agricultural producers, often subsidized by a government agency, to protect against the loss of potential revenue from crop sales due to extraneous circumstances, such as reductions in cropyield caused by natural disasters (drought, floods, hail, etc.) or declines in the prices of agricultural commodities.
Any organic material left in an agriculturalfield ororchard after acrop has beenharvested, such as stalks and stems, leaves, seed pods, etc., or after a crop is processed for consumer use, such as seeds,husks, roots,bagasse, or other byproducts of processing. Field residues may be maintained as soil cover, burned, orploughed into the soil asgreen manure; process residues are often used as animalfodder orsoil amendments.
The practice of cultivating a series of differentcrops in the same space over the course of multiplegrowing seasons, often in a specific sequence that repeats in a cycle every few seasons. The alternative to crop rotation,monocropping, may gradually deplete the soil of certain nutrients andselect for highly competitive communities of pests and weeds, decreasing productivity in the absence of high volumes of external inputs such asfertilizers andherbicides. Crop rotation can reduce reliance upon these inputs by making use of the naturalecosystem services that accompany diverse sets of crops, usually by improving soil quality and reducing the probability of pests and weeds developing resistances to control measures.
A wild plant taxon that is closely related to adomesticated plant taxon (e.g. a wild ancestor of the domesticated plant) and which therefore may be indirectly useful to plant breeders by presenting the possibility of introducing genetic material from the wild plant into the domestic relative by crossbreeding.
The use of anagricultural aircraft to apply protective chemicals or other amendments, especiallypesticides andfertilizers, tocrops from above. Such aircraft may include either fixed-wing airplanes or helicopters, but are typically highly specialized and purpose-built to distribute very large amounts of liquid product over very large land areas in a relatively efficient manner.
A farm financing scheme whereby money is loaned at the beginning of agrowing season to pay for farming operations, with the subsequent harvest used as collateral for the loan.[18]
Theremoval of wool from around the anus, genitals, orudder of wool-bearing animals such assheep,[5] generally to prevent urine, feces, or dirt from becoming trapped in the wool near these areas and potentially contributing to the spread of disease.
cryophilous crop
A plant crop that requires a period of exposure to low temperatures in order to break dormancy and produce flowers and seeds.[19]
Afarm implement consisting of a series of heavy, disc-shaped metal rollers, each bearing regularly spaced protrusions designed to crush dirt clods and push stones andfield residues into the soil as they are pulled across a field (usually after it has beentilled andsown), with the goal of preparing a uniformly smooth, flat, firmseedbed devoid of air pockets, where seeds placed at shallow depths can maintain good contact with the surrounding soil.
Acultivated variety of a particular plant species,domesticated by humans andartificially selected for desirable traits which distinguish it from other varieties of the same species, and whichbreeds true and retains those traits when propagated. Plant species grown as agriculturalcrops may have dozens, hundreds, or thousands of distinct cultivars which have been deliberatelybred by farmers and horticulturists by carefully managing their reproduction over many generations, e.g. by planting asexualvegetative propagules or bycrossbreeding specific plants to createhybrid offspring. Not all cultivated plants are considered cultivars; by the strictest definition the term may be reserved for officially registered or patented commercial varieties, though in common usage it may be applied more broadly, even to wild plants with distinctive characteristics.
1. The act of improving an area of land for or byagriculture, especially through the deliberate growing ofplants (but not necessarily excluding other types of agriculture). Land upon which plants are sown, nurtured, and harvested, or more broadly any land dedicated to agricultural purposes, is said to becultivated.
An approach topest control which emphasizes the modification of the agricultural environment in order to reduce the prevalence and proliferation of unwanted pests, as an alternative to applying chemicalpesticides. Examples of cultural control include altering physical properties of the growing environment (e.g. soil pH or fertility, amount of sunlight, temperature, humidity, irrigation, etc.) in order to make it difficult or impossible for pests to live there, adhering to a strict program offallowing andweeding, and using pest-eating predators such as chickens or ladybugs as a form ofbiocontrol. Systematic implementation of these practices can reduce the need for curative interventions and thus avoid the detrimental effects of conventional top-down approaches to pest control such as those associated with chronic pesticide use.
Meat-like animal tissue that is grown in a laboratory byculturing animal cellsin vitro, in a process known ascellular agriculture, as opposed to meat obtained from whole animals that are raised on farms and thenslaughtered.
The contracting of independent operators of farm equipment toharvest crops, especiallygrains, on a particular farm. Custom harvesters provide their owncombines and othermachinery and often charge for their work by theacre, with additional charges for highyields.[20]
Cattle bred or raised specifically formilk production, from which any of a variety ofdairy products can be made. This is in contrast to cattle raised for other purposes, such as fortheir meat or so that they can be employed asworking animals.
dam
The female parent of an animal. The term is used alongsidesire, especially for domestic mammals such ascattle and horses.
damping off
A disease of newly germinatedseedlings caused by any of a variety of fungi (e.g.Rhizoctonia orAphanomyces) which spread in warm, damp conditions and parasitize roots and lower stems. Damping off is a common cause of seedling loss ingreenhouses.[21]
The practice ofremoving dead or spent flowers from a live plant in order to encourage further flowering, to prevent seed development, or to improve the plant's appearance.[7] See alsodeblossoming.
The practice ofremoving flowers, spent or unspent, from live plants for any reason, especially to encourage or improve the subsequent growth, reproduction, health, or appearance of the plant's non-flower parts. Deblossoming is often done in order to divert the plant's limited resources away from sexual reproduction and towardsvegetative propagation, e.g. by roots and runners; early in aperennial plant's life in order to allow it to establish and grow to maturity before dedicating resources to reproduction; or near the end of thegrowing season in order to maximize the size and quality of existing fruits, seeds, or other useful crop parts by diverting energy and nutrients away from new buds that will likely not have time to develop into useful crops anyway.
Anyherbicidal chemical which causes leaves or other foliage to detach and drop from a plant. Defoliants are sometimes used on very leafy trees and shrubs to make finding andharvesting the non-leaf crop parts easier, or more commonly tocontrol weeds.[7]
deintensified farming
Any agricultural operation which was formerlyintensive but has since become deliberatelyextensive.[21]
Anycrop that is (or historically was) grown or used only for special occasions, as an elite or luxury item, or for pleasure rather than sustenance. Crops historically considered dessert crops includecoffee,tea,sugar,cocoa, andtobacco.
Inmaize farming, the process of removing thepollen-producing flowers, known astassels, from the tops of maize plants in order to preventself-pollination. It is used as acrossbreeding strategy to ensure that the detasseled plants are receptive to pollen from non-self sources, e.g. from differentcultivars when creatinghybrid varieties.
The removal of water from aharvestedcrop by pressing and compacting layers of plant material for long periods of time. Dewatering can be significantly cheaper than other artificial drying techniques.[21]
The process of treating a domestic animal with any treatment intended to kill or prevent the proliferation of endoparasitic worms (i.e. avermicide), includingroundworms,flukes, andtapeworms, usually by applying anantihelminthic drug either orally (via afeed supplement ordrenching), topically (by pouring a liquid on the animal's skin), or by injection.
A naturally occurring siliceous sedimentary rock consisting of the fossilized shells of microscopic single-celled algae known asdiatoms, generally in the form of a crumbly, abrasive powder composed of silica, alumina, and iron oxides. It has many applications in agriculture, including as an anti-caking additive inanimal feed and stored grain, as an organicinsecticide, and as asoil conditioner orgrowing medium, where its low density and high porosity allow it to retain water and nutrients, circulate oxygen, and drain quickly.
The use of electronic sensors, computers, and information technology to digitally collect, store, analyze, and share agricultural data.
dipping
The process of immersing a live animal into a bath containing a liquid formulation ofinsecticide (and sometimes alsofungicide), usually a dilute solution oforganophosphorus compounds, as a means of removing lice, ticks, or other ectoparasites which may otherwise cause disease.Sheep are commonly treated in asheep dip, andcattle in aplunge dip.[21]
The intentional removal of all or part of an animal's tail by any of a variety of methods, usually by cutting with a knife or scalpel, applying a hot iron, or constricting blood circulation with a rubber ring to cause the tail to fall off. Docking ofswine is performed in order to reduce potentially harmfultail biting behaviors between cohabitating pigs; insheep andcattle, it is often practiced with the rationale that shorter tails are less likely to trap dirt and feces and transfer them to other body parts (e.g. theudder indairy cattle), thereby reducing pathogen infestation and improving the animal's cleanliness and well-being and consequently the quality of any products harvested from the animal, though the efficacy of docking for these purposes has not been conclusively demonstrated.[23]
A man-made structure intended to housedomestic pigeons ordoves, usually consisting of a sheltered space with one or more holes allowing the birds to nest inside, either free-standing or built into the side or roof of a building.
draff
Refuse obtained as a byproduct of the distillation ofgrain and used as ananimal feed, especiallymalt left over from thebrewing process.[14]
The weight of an animal carcass after it has beenslaughtered and partially butchered or "dressed", typically when still containing bones and cartilage but after the hide, head, hooves, and internal organs have been removed. When weighed immediately following slaughter and prior to chilling, it may be called thehot dressed carcass weight orhot dressed weight.[27] Dressed weight is commonly used to calculate the price of meat.[28]
drinker
An automated water line used to provide drinking water to livestock such ascattle orpoultry.[29]
A type ofmicro-irrigation system that supplies water and/or liquidfertilizer solution to crops by allowing it to leak slowly from perforated plastic or rubber tubes into the soil surrounding the plants' roots, with the primary goal of delivering water directly to theroot zone and thereby minimizing wasting due to evaporation andrunoff (which are often significant problems insurface irrigation andsprinkler irrigation). Drip systems distribute water through a network of valves, pipes, emitters, and flexible, lightweight tubing calleddrip line ordrip tape, which can be positioned above or buried below the soil surface. Drip irrigation is most commonly used in small-scale outdoor operations,high tunnels, andgreenhouses, where it is often much more efficient than alternative irrigation methods and has the advantage of allowing water and fertilizers to be applied gradually, uniformly, and in precise quantities to each individual plant.
The process of movinglivestock on foot over long distances, generally byherding them together and encouraging or compelling them to walk in a particular direction. Very large herds ofcattle,sheep, and horses are commonly moved in this way between differentpastures, or fromrangeland to a market where they can be sold; such a journey may be called adrive. Herds are traditionally moved bycowboys on horses, though drovers may also employ dogs, vehicles, andgoads to keep the animals clustered together and moving in the right direction.
Amilk cow which has ceased to producemilk from a particularlactation, especially because it is within 60 days ofcalving and beginning a new lactation.[2]
The cultivation of plant crops inarid or semiarid climates, or wherever there is, for any reason, a relative scarcity of fresh water resources available for agricultural uses either year-round or during the growing season. Dry farming thus encompasses a set of agricultural techniques and management practices adapted specifically for growing crops without the aid ofirrigation,[2] which generally emphasize the strict conservation of existing soil moisture and the selection ofcultivars which are drought-tolerant or otherwise well-suited for the specific challenges of arid environments. Other common dryland practices include wider than normal spacing between individual plants,minimal tillage anduse of heavy machinery, aggressiveweed control, and frequentfallowing.[30]
The removal of any of the fleshycaruncles from the heads ofpoultry, i.e. thecomb,wattles, and/or earlobes. Dubbing is often done with the rationale that it reduces the chances that these parts will be injured, become infected, and thereby potentially compromise the bird's overall health, though the practice has been criticized for being unnecessarily stressful to birds, and also because combs and wattles are thought to have important functions in the regulation of body temperature and in certain social behaviors.
A method of increasing the density of soil deposits by repeatedly dropping a very heavy weight onto the ground at regularly spaced locations, which can compress underground voids, improve soil structure and stability, and prevent settling and undesirable soil movement beneath buildings. It has many applications, including in agriculture, where it can be used to increase water andamendment retention inseedbeds, especially when subsurface constraints make alternative methods of compaction inappropriate.
A cut or notch made in, or a tag attached to, one or both ears of alivestock animal (most commonlycattle,pigs,goats, andsheep) as an easily visible mark of identification, usually to indicate age, sex, medical status, or ownership. Comparebrand.
The scientific study of interactions between biological organisms and their biotic and abiotic environments. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology,geography, andEarth science.
economic maturity
The optimum time at which to harvest a tree or stand of trees (or any other perennial plants), as determined by the age at which the growth rate slows enough to cause the average annual profit over the life of the stand to begin to decrease.[32]
The scientific study of the influence of soils on living organisms, particularly plants, and of how soils are used and modified by humans for agriculture.
Changes in ecological characteristics (e.g. population or community structure) associated with the boundary between two dissimilar habitat types, ecosystems, or agricultural land uses, potentially affecting the biological and ecological traits of the resident plant or animal communities.[7]
effective precipitation
The portion of the cumulative or mean total precipitation received within a specified area, on a particularfarm orfield, or by an individual plant during a given time period that is or becomes available for plant growth because it is stored in the soil within therooting depth of the plants or persists on the surface long enough to eventually drain into and occupy that rooting depth before it is lost by evaporating orrunning off.[33]
Anycrop grown exclusively as a source offuel for the purpose ofenergy production. Such crops are processed into solid, liquid, or gaseousbiofuels (as withbioethanol andbiogas) which are then burned to generate power or heat for human purposes.
An area of land from which grazing or browsing animals, often domesticlivestock but sometimes wild animals such as deer, are excluded byfencing or other means. Fenced exclosures are common inopen range areas, where it is the landowner's responsibility to keep unwanted animals off their land.
Any system of agricultural production that uses smallinputs of labor, fertilizer, and/orcapital relative to the land area used for production, in contrast tointensive agriculture.
1. (adj.) The condition of anyarable land which is deliberately not planted or which is leftunsown for one or more production cycles orgrowing seasons, usually with the intent of allowing the soil to restore depleted nutrients and other organic matter that is critical for ecological function, while retaining moisture and disrupting the life cycles of agricultural pests by temporarily removing their hosts. Fallowing is an important technique incrop rotation.
2. (n.) Any period of time during which arable land is not used for cultivation.
fallow crop
Acrop that is grown in widely spaced rows so that it is possible tohoe and cultivate between the rows.
Afarm which on average produces a harvest sufficient to support one family, or a farm which is owned and/or operated by a single family, as opposed to farms operated ascollectives,non-family corporations, or in other institutionalized forms.
A type of agricultural product certification that emphasizes the principles ofquality assurance and signals to consumers that the certified producer has adhered to a particular set of standards and principles during production, such as ingood agricultural practice.
Themarket value of an agricultural product minus the subsequent costs of transporting, storing, marketing, and selling the product to a consumer; the net value of the product as it is at the "farm gate", i.e. upon leaving the agricultural operation, before such costs are added to the market price. The market or retail price paid by the consumer is often far higher than the amount the farmer actually receives for the product, particularly if the farmer sellswholesale to a retailer rather than directly to the end consumer as infarm gate marketing.[34]
A type of retail outlet which sells freshproduce directly from a particularfarm or group of farms. Direct sales to consumers allow farmers to retain a larger portion of the resulting profit than they can usually obtain by selling to a wholesaler. See alsofarmers' market.
Water that is committed for use in agriculture of any type. Farm water may include water used in theirrigation of crops as well as in the watering oflivestock.
A retail marketplace, often outdoors, where farmers are able to sell freshproduce, live plants and animals, and sometimes prepared foods and other agricultural products directly to consumers (rather than to a wholesaler). These markets are often community-organized businesses consisting of multiplefarm stands operated independently by individual farmers, who are free to set up a booth or table and sell their own goods at prices they set themselves.
The practice of intentionally performing an agricultural activity, such as growingcrops or raisinglivestock, on land dedicated to the purpose, known as afarm. The term is often used very loosely to refer to many different agricultural processes of different scales and with different goals, or, in the broadest sense, as a synonym foragriculture in general.
The set of buildings and service areas associated with afarm or other agricultural holding, traditionally including residential accommodations such as afarmhouse for the operator's family as well as various buildings dedicated to the particularities of agricultural production, including pens, yards,stables, andcorrals for housingdraft animals orlivestock;barns,silos, andmangers for storingcrops,grains, oranimal fodder; garages and sheds for storing farm vehicles and equipment; and other structures involved in the processing of raw materials into commercial products. The farmstead as a whole typically consists of a core complex of such buildings as well as clusters ofoutlying buildings.
A social movement which promotes the consumption of locally produced foods, and particularly the serving of such foods at public establishments such as restaurants and school cafeterias. This is usually accomplished by purchasing food directly from the farmers or producers (rather than an intermediate retailer), or by the restaurant or school cultivating its own food. Farm-to-table often emphasizes food traceability, sustainability, freshness, and environmental awareness. The idea is central to the practice oflocavorism.
A young animal, e.g. acalf orlamb, that has been fattened in preparation forslaughter.[32]
fatstock
Livestock which have beenfattened in order to beslaughtered for meat, particularly those animals that have achieved the target weight andconformation required for slaughter.[22]
A protein supplement included in some formulatedanimal feed andorganic fertilizers as a nitrogen source, made by grinding and dryingpoultry feathers under elevated heat and pressure.[7]
Anycereal grain grown specifically so that it can be used asfodder to feedlivestock. Corn, barley, and sorghum are commonly grown for this purpose.[15]
An animal feeding operation consisting of a densely concentrated area of enclosures or pens containing individual animals, which is used for the efficient raising, fattening, andfinishing of numerouslivestock prior toslaughter, especiallybeef cattle, but alsoswine, horses,sheep, andpoultry.
The area of ground immediately adjacent to afence that is left unmowed or untilled because it is difficult or inconvenient to maneuver largeagricultural machinery in this space without removing or damaging the fence. Grasses and weeds are therefore able to grow unrestricted in this area, often providing shelter for birds and wild animals, unless more precise tools are employed.[32]
The application offertilizers,soil amendments, or other water-soluble compounds to agricultural land by mixing them with the water distributed by anirrigation system.
Anycrop suited to cultivation in a large openfield, or which must generally be grown in great quantities, on a larger scale than ingardens, in order to produce a meaningfulyield, such as mostcereals,hay, and cotton.[15]
A strip of grass or other dense, permanent vegetation lining the edge of an agricultural field and acting as a buffer zone between the field and its surrounding environment, usually designed with the primary goal of controlling non-point source pollution by filtering agriculturalsurface runoff before it drains into an adjacent body of water, e.g. a pond, lake, stream, diversion terrace, or irrigation canal. The roots of the vegetation trap and removeagrichemicals including fertilizers and pesticides from the runoff and may also help reduce sediment erosion, thereby preventing the contamination andeutrophication of natural ecosystems.
Filter strips (light green) separate agricultural fields from a natural stream in the U.S. state of Iowa
A nutrient-richemulsion used as afertilizer for plant crops, produced from the liquid remains of fish which have been industrially processed forfish oil orfish meal.
Any method ofsurface irrigation that covers the entire cultivated soil surface with water, usually to a specific depth and for a specific duration. Flood irrigation may be carefully controlled, as withbasin irrigation andborder irrigation, or may simply rely on the natural flooding of adjacent rivers and streams.[32]
A youngequine animal (a horse or donkey) of either sex, usually less than one year old. A male foal may be called acolt and a female foal may be called afilly, though these terms may also be used for juvenile animals that are older than one year of age.
Any agricultural foodstuff used to feed domesticatedlivestock, and more specifically food given to the animals directly (such ashay,straw,silage, andcompound feeds), as opposed to that which theyforage for themselves.
The availability of edible food within a country or other geographic area and the ability of humans within that area to access, afford, and attain sufficient, safe, and nutritious foodstuffs, either by gathering, producing, or importing them, in order to meet their dietary needs for active and healthy lifestyles.
The totality of interconnected principles, processes, and infrastructures that influence food, nutrition, health, and agriculture in human communities; i.e. the complete set of components involved in feeding a human population, including the growth, management, harvesting, processing, packaging, storage, distribution, marketing, consumption, and disposal of agricultural food products and food-related items. Food systems encompass the entire range of actors and their value-adding activities in the lifespan of a food product from production to consumption, and thus operate within and are influenced by numerous social, political, economic, technological, and environmental contexts at various steps in the process.
The practice of integrating edible plants into ornamental landscapes, cultivating them not only for the food they produce but also for their aesthetic qualities.
An integratedlivestock-crop production system in which crops are harvested for human consumption and then thecrop residues or byproducts are used asfeed for livestock, often on the same or nearby agricultural land.
The practice of providing supplemental nutrition to plants by applying liquidfertilizer directly to their leaves, stems, or bark, as opposed to their roots, which are the usual target for conventional fertilizing methods. Most plants are perfectly capable of absorbing nutrients through these aboveground parts, and there may be good reasons to prefer that the nutrients travel by these routes rather than through the soil surrounding the roots.
Any plant material, especially leaves and stems, eaten bygrazinglivestock, especially that which is grazed by animals inpastures. In a looser sense it may also includefodder (plant material deliberately cut and given to animals as food).
The practice of intentionally breaking the dormancy of a cultivated plant and encouraging germination, active growth, and/or flowering and fruiting outside of its naturalgrowing season (e.g. in the winter). This involves exposing a seed or other propagule, or a matureperennial plant, to a specific sequence of carefully controlled environmental conditions (e.g.cold stratification) intended to simulate the environmental cues the plant normally receives at the beginning of its seasonal growth cycle, which trigger the internal chemical reactions that cause it to grow and develop. The term is used particularly in the indoorhorticulture of plants that grow frombulbs,corms, orrhizomes, but can also refer more broadly to the off-season cultivation of any plant or propagule.
A practice inagroforestry involving the cultivation of high-value specialtycrops under aforest canopy that is deliberately modified or maintained to provide habitat and shade levels which enhance cropyields. Most crops produced by such methods arenon-timber forest products or niche crops such asginseng and certain varieties ofmushroom.
Inflammation of connective tissues known as laminae in the hoof of an animal, especially horses and cattle, which over time can displace bones in the foot and in severe cases render the animal unable to walk or stand up. It can have many causes, including cold weather, excessive stress, and overeating grain or green forage.[37]
A method of animal farming andanimal husbandry in which the animals are permitted to roam freely outdoors, rather than being confined in enclosures, for at least part of each day. Though in practice the outdoor ranging area is usually fenced-in and therefore technically also an enclosure, free-range systems offer the opportunity for extensive locomotion, fresh air, and sunlight that is otherwise reduced or entirely prevented by indoor housing systems. The term may apply to farming for meat, eggs, or dairy products; inranching, it is sometimes used interchangeably withopen range.
An infertile femalebovine animal (acow) that shows masculinized behavior, in particular one that is born as a twin to a male animal and, despite being phenotypically female, is actually agenetic chimera, having acquired some XY cells by exchange of cellular material with the male twin in utero, causing various hormonal alterations to normal female reproductive development.
freshening
The process by whichcows naturally begin to producemilk after acalf is born.[37]
frost control
Any of a variety of measures taken to reduce or prevent damage to agricultural crops caused by extremely cold temperatures, especially plants on farms, in gardens, and in orchards. Common frost control methods include covering crop plants withcold frames, keeping soils wet with continuousirrigation, and providing supplementary heat sources such assmudge pots.[14]
A chicken of either sex between 8 and 12 weeks of age and weighing 3 to 4 pounds (1.4 to 1.8 kg), especially one raised specifically for meat production. The term is often used interchangeably withbroiler.[5]
Any wood intended for use in cooking, heating, or power generation, valuable for its ability to produce large amounts of energy when burned. It may come from trees cultivated specifically for this purpose, or from wild trees and shrubs, either as trimmings from the woody trunks and branches of live plants or from dead logs, brush, or other woody debris.[14]
Thecultivation offungi with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, such as foods, medicines, or scientific research materials.
A type ofirrigation which relies on long, shallow, parallel channels, known asfurrows, dug into the soil along the length of an agricultural field to deliver water to crops planted on the ridges between the furrows. Water is applied to one end of the furrows, which are often aligned in the direction of the field's predominant natural slope, and flows down the furrows by gravity. Furrow irrigation is particularly suited to broadacrerow crops such ascotton,maize, andsugarcane.
Any indoor or outdoor space reserved for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of wild or domesticated plants and other organisms; i.e. a plot of land dedicated tohorticulture, being managed and maintained by humans in a practice known asgardening, generally on a scale smaller than most farming operations.
Thehorticultural practice of growing and cultivating plants in agarden, indoors or outdoors, whether for consumption of the produce or for aesthetic reasons, and often as a hobby or to make use of available space on residential, commercial, or civic land. Gardening involves active participation in the entire process of cultivation and tends to be labor-intensive, which distinguishes it from the much larger-scale mechanized or automated operations often encountered infarming andforestry.
1. Acastrated male horse, or more generally any animal deliberately made sterile,[2] especially one that was castrated before reaching reproductive maturity.[5]
2. The process of castrating orneutering an animal for any reason, commonly for mitigating aggressive behavior and/or preventing unwanted intercourse in very large domestic livestock such as cattle and horses.
An enclosure in which a domesticsow used for breeding is confined during pregnancy. Often these cages are not much larger than the sow herself, being designed to maximize breeding efficiency for industrial-scale production, and hence are banned in some jurisdictions for being detrimental to animal welfare. See alsomaternity pen.
gilt
A young femalehog, usually less than one year old.[5]: 27
The process of separatingcottonfibers from the seeds they naturally enclose, particularly when performed by a machine which does so automatically, known as acotton gin. Both the fibers and seeds may then be processed further.
The practice of collecting unharvested crops from fields or obtaining unused agricultural products from farmers, processors, or retailers, often for distribution to food banks or charitable organizations.[35]
An organophosphorus compound widely used as apost-emergent broad-spectrum systemicherbicide and crop desiccant, especially to kill annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crop plants. It is the primary ingredient in the herbicideRoundup.
Any collection of specific principles or methods applied by agricultural producers in order to create food or non-food products that are safe, healthy, and wholesome for consumers while also taking into account economic, social, and environmentalsustainability. GAPs may be applied to a wide range of production systems and at different scales, and often vary with geographical context.
The process of removing or reducing the moisture content of harvestedgrain to prevent spoilage during storage. Drying may occur by natural means, e.g. exposing the grain to air and sunshine, or by artificial fuel- or electric-powered processes, or both.
A tower containing abucket elevator orpneumatic conveyor designed to carry harvestedgrain upwards from a lower level (often from some type of transport) and deposit it into asilo orgrain bin for long-term storage. The term may also refer more specifically to the elevator mechanism itself, known as agrain leg; or more generally to a complex of agricultural buildings containing an elevator, as well as offices, weighbridges, and storage facilities, or to a business or organization that operates or controls multiple elevators in different locations. Grain elevators facilitate the mechanical movement of bulk quantities of grain into vertical storage bins with valves at the bottom, which function as enormous hoppers from which the grain can later be dispensed into trucks or barges by gravity alone, obviating the difficult and time-consuming labor of manually lifting and moving individual containers of grain from place to place.[38] The introduction of this system in the 19th century popularized the modern collective storage model whereby a grain elevator rents storage space to farmers and millers, who pay to store their harvested grain at the elevator instead of in their own barns.
A mechanism for hauling flowable bulk materials vertically, commonlygrain as the central operation of agrain elevator. Modern grain legs typically consist of a pneumatic conveyor belt with attached bins or buckets which lift grain from an in-ground pit and carry it to the top of the leg, where the buckets tip as they rotate over the head drive wheel, spilling the grain into a system of pipes which distribute it by gravity or additional conveyors tograin bins for storage.[39]
Describing livestock such ascattle which have been raised exclusively on grass, pasture, or otherforages (wild or cultivated), as opposed to being fed processedanimal feeds.[37]
grazier
Alsopastoralist orrunholder.
A person engaged inpastoral farming and the raising ofgrazinglivestock. The term is used primarily in Australia and other former British Commonwealth territories, and has the same meaning as the North American termrancher.
1. A type of herbivory in which the herbivore feeds ongrasses and other non-woody vegetation, as opposed tobrowsing, which involves feeding on taller trees and shrubs.
2. A method of animalhusbandry which relies on this type of herbivory, whereby domesticlivestock such as cattle are allowed to roam freely, often on wildpasture that is unsuitable for farming, in order to graze wild grasses and otherforage.
Forage that is cut or harvested in the field while still green and succulent and then fed directly tolivestock as freshfodder (in contrast tohay and other types of feed which have been dried and stored). If wrapped and allowed to ferment, it can be made intosilage.[2]
Fresh or recently living plant material sourced fromcrop residues or even whole plants which isploughed ortilled into the soil while still green (and usually when the plant tissues have reached peak maturity, often shortly after flowering and before developing seeds) so that it can serve as amulch or anorganic fertilizer. This is in contrast tobrown manure, which consists of wilted or decayed plants that are simply left on the soil surface. Plants used for green manure are oftencover crops grown specifically for this purpose and tilled into the same field in which acash crop is subsequently cultivated.
The dramatic increase in agricultural production that occurred worldwide during the second half of the 20th century, primarily due to the adoption of modern scientific methods offarming and large-scale management techniques; the development ofhigh-yielding varieties of many crop plants (especiallycereal grains); the expansion ofirrigation infrastructures; the mechanization of many agricultural tasks with modernagricultural machinery; and the increase in the availability and use ofchemicalinputs such asfertilizers andpesticides, all of which led to a marked increase in production rates, farmyields, food quality and consistency, and crop prices in most parts of the world. The Green Revolution also accordingly led to an increase in land conversion and consolidation and the emergence of mass-marketindustrial agriculture, as well as to concerns aboutsustainability and the impact of agricultural practices on public health and the environment.
A building or structure designed to regulate the temperature and humidity of the environment inside, generally by having roofs and walls made of transparent panes of glass or plastic which permit sunlight to enter the interior but prevent heat from leaving it, effectively trappingsolar energy inside and thereby heating the interior space to temperatures well above those of the outdoor environment. Thus greenhouses provide warm, sheltered environments where plants can grow even when the outdoor weather is cold and unsuitable, while still permitting enough sunlight forphotosynthesis. Thisgreenhouse effect is widely employed in agriculture and horticulture at many different scales (e.g. incold frames andpolytunnels) as a method ofseason extension or ofcontrolled-environment agriculture. Greenhouses are usually designed to be easily ventilated (to prevent temperatures from increasing too much) and to supply or trap moisture as well as heat; in modern practice these systems are often fully automated.
Grain that has been separated from itschaff in preparation for grinding in amill; less commonly, the term is also used to describe grain after the process of grinding, i.e. grain that has already been ground.
Amill that grindsgrist (grain that has been separated from itschaff) intoflour andmiddlings. The term may refer to either the grinding mechanism itself or the building that contains it.
The part of the year during which local weather conditions (i.e. temperature and precipitation) permit the normal growth ofplants in a given location. Though the timing of plant growth and reproduction can vary widely by species, many plants adapted to the same environment show considerablephenological overlap, and so the term commonly refers to a single generic season that encompasses a majority of the plants or crops growing in a given location. In many places, the local "growing season" is defined as the period of time between the average date of the lastfrost (typically in the spring or early summer) and the average date of the first frost (typically in the autumn).
Any dense, resistant layer of soil, usually found below the uppermosttopsoil, that is difficult to dig or till and largely impervious to water and root growth. Hardpans can vary in thickness and depth below the surface; some form naturally from deposits such assilica that fuse and bind the soil particles, while others are human-made such as those caused by chronicsoil compaction as a result of repeatedploughing, heavy traffic, or pollution.
A farm implement used to break up and smooth out the surface of a plot of soil. Harrowing often follows coarserploughing, generally with the purpose of breaking up large lumps of soil so as to provide a bettertilth that is suitable for use as aseedbed, and sometimes also to remove weeds or to cover seed aftersowing.
1. To collect an agricultural product from a maturecrop, a process known asharvesting.
2. The collected crop itself, considered as a whole; or the season in which harvesting occurs, generally marking the final phase of theagricultural cycle orgrowing season for the particular crop. The harvest is often the busiest time of year on a commercial farm.
harvest index
The weight of theharvestedgrain portion of a grain crop as a percentage of the total above-ground dry weight of the crop plants at maturity.[7]
harvested acres
For a particularcrop, the number of acres of cropland that are actuallyharvested, as opposed toplanted but not harvested. At the national level, this statistic is usually lower than the total number of planted acres due to abandonment caused by weather damage or low market prices at some point during thegrowing season, or because the crop is repurposed for livestockgrazing.[35]
The process of gathering a ripecrop from an agricultural area such as afield orgreenhouse. Harvesting is often the most labor-intensive activity of thegrowing season or utilizes the most expensive and sophisticatedimplements ormachinery. In general usage, the term may also include immediatepostharvest practices such as cleaning, sorting, packing, cooling, and storing the gathered crops.
The manual labor of lifting and moving heavybales of hay by hand, each usually weighing 50–150 pounds (23–68 kg), for the purpose of stacking them in a storage area or on the bed of a vehicle for transportation. The act of throwing bales up above one's head to stack them is called "bucking hay". This labor is notoriously strenuous and physically demanding. Teams of laborers often work together, wearingchaps and usinghay hooks to handle the bales. The same task may also be accomplished mechanically withforklifts,balers, or powered elevators.
Another name forallergic rhinitis, a type of inflammation predominantly in the nose and eyes resulting from an immune reaction to any of a wide variety of airborneallergens, including but not limited topollen grains from grasses and other plants. The term is often used to describe the sudden onset of symptoms following inhalation of the dry particulate dust associated with manufacturing and handlinghay, though it is now also used colloquially to refer to allergic reactions of any cause.
A handheld agricultural tool consisting of a long-bladed knife, sometimes with a serrated edge, that is used for cutting or sawing through compact bundles,sheaves, orbales ofhay orsilage.
A type ofrake used to collect cuthay orstraw intowindrows for later collection (e.g. by abaler) and/or to "fluff up" the hay so that it dries more quickly.
A method of treating harvestedhay by placing it in an airtight vessel and exposing it to high-temperature moisture, which dampens the respirable dust that occurs naturally in dried hay, preventing it from becoming airborne and thereby reducing its inhalation by humans and livestock, and also potentially killing bacterial or fungal spores which may be present.
haycock
Alsohaystack or simplystack orcock.
A small pile ofhay, uncompressed and left to dry in a field.[32]
Silage with a high dry-matter content, made from the samegrasses orlegumes from whichhay is made (such asalfalfa,timothy, and others) but not dried as much as hay nor as little as direct-chop/green-chop silage (before being ensiled).
Theseed of grasses and legumes that are used for producinghay, especially when shaken from mown hay, and therefore sometimes inclusive ofweed seed.[32]
1. Another name for astook orhaycock, or more broadly for any pile of mownhay left in a field to dry, whether loosely stacked or bound and compacted.
2. A large number ofsheaves orbales of dried hay stacked vertically one upon another, eithermanually or mechanically, for long-term storage. Methods of storing hay vary widely between different parts of the world, though in general they all have the same goals of keeping the hay dry and preventingspoilage. To this end haystacks are often constructed inside abarn or beneath a tarp, shelter, ormoveable roof so as to protect them from the elements, and sometimes also on top of a wood or metal foundation rather than the bare ground. Small rectangular bales are stacked in a manner akin to bricklaying, overlapping or in a crisscrossed fashion, for structural stability.
Rectangularbales of hay placed in ahaystack for long-term storage
A wide strip of land at each end of a plantedfield used for turning or maneuvering large farm machinery such asploughs. The headland runs perpendicular to the lay of the field and may itself be planted at the beginning of the season; in such cases it is usually the first area to beharvested in order to minimize crop damage.[40]
The part of amillrace that is upstream of thewater wheel or turbine that drives themill; the channel or sluice that conducts water from a water source to the mill. Comparetailrace.
A metric unit of area defined as the area of a square with sides of 100 by 100metres (330 by 330feet), equivalent to 10,000square metres (0.003861 sq mi), or about 2.47acres.
An adultcow that has not yet given birth to her firstcalf.
hefting
The process by which aflock of sheep becomes accustomed to one particular area within a largerpasture orrangeland, making individuals less likely to roam to distant areas and the flock easier to track and manage.
The cultivation ofland snails with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, usually food or cosmetics, or as a form ofbiological pest control.
The distribution by humans, intentionally or unintentionally, of cultivated plants or their seeds, cuttings, or propagules into habitats they have been unable to colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread, but in which they are nonetheless able to survive and propagate without additional support from human activities.
Apesticide intended to kill or prevent the proliferation of unwanted plants such asweeds, by any of a wide variety of mechanisms. The most common herbicides are chemical substances which are applied directly to the foliage, stems, or roots of the target plant or to the soil or water around it. Selective herbicides are designed to be effective only against particular plant species or taxa, while leaving other plants such as agricultural crops relatively unharmed. By contrast, non-selective or broad-spectrum herbicides are capable of harming many or all types of plants, such that care must be taken when applying them so as to avoid harming valuable species. The use of chemical herbicides is a major aspect of agriculturalweed control.
The development of a biological resistance to the deleterious effects of aherbicide, particularly inweeds or undesirable plants specifically targeted by and normally vulnerable to the herbicide. Such resistance is a common consequence of prolonged use of the same chemical formulation to control the same plant species, because doing so mayartificially select for individual plants which express resistance traits.
The act of gathering individual animals together into a group (known as aherd), maintaining the group as a unit, and/ormoving the group from place to place. Many social animals, includingcattle,sheep, and horses, naturally live in herds. Raising these animals aslivestock involves a significant amount of time and energy managing and arranging herds, e.g. to separate animals by sex, breed, ownership, or medical status, or to move them between different grazing lands or to a marketplace.
The skin of an animal, especially when removed from the animal andtanned or treated for human use, after which it is also known asleather. Domestic animals, particularly cattle, horses, sheep, and goats,[2] are sometimes raised specifically for their hides.
A type ofextensive agriculture practiced in hilly, upland areas unsuitable for intensive management, typically involving thegrazing oflivestock and especially sheep.
The piling of soil around the base of a plant, creating a small mound or ridge of earth, so as to aid plant growth in any of a variety of ways, often to improve retention of water orsoil amendments.
A smallfarm orsmallholding that is operated without the expectation of it being a primary source of food or income. Hobby farms may provide a secondary income or may be maintained for other reasons, e.g. in order to provide recreational land for people or animals, or simply for the pleasure of doing so, i.e. as a hobby or passion project.
A handheld tool or farmimplement generally consisting of a flat, moderately sharpened metal blade, often square or pointed, that is attached at an acute angle to a long handle intended to be held with two hands. Hoes come in many shapes and sizes and are widely used in agriculture and horticulture for a huge variety of purposes, including digging, shaping, andtilling soil,removing weeds,harvesting crops by cutting stems or roots, and clearing the soil after harvest by burying or rakingcrop residues.
Another name for apig or domesticatedswine, especially one weighing at least 120 pounds (54 kg) and being prepared for market.[32]
hog off
To harvest agrain crop by allowing domestic pigs to eat it when the grain is nearly ripe, often because it is a poor crop that is not worth harvesting for market.[32]
Cultivated or produced locally, as with crops or livestock raised on one's own property (especially on land that also serves as the grower's place of residence, e.g. in a household garden), on a nearby farm, or in the same state or nation where they are offered for sale and consumption.[32]
Any plant used by bees as a source of nectar for makinghoney, especially one that imparts a distinctive flavor to the honey made from it. Examples include alfalfa, buckwheat, clover, goldenrod, mesquite, and sumac.
Thecultivation of plants for any purpose, including for food, materials, and decoration. Horticulturists apply a variety of knowledge, skills, and technologies relevant to plant growth and propagation, typically inintensively managedgardens, in order to grow plants forsubsistence purposes, for profit, for scientific research, or for personal or social needs.
An area of decaying organic matter (e.g.manure) that is warmer than its surroundings as a result of thedecomposition of organic substances by microorganisms. Hotbeds enclosed by a small glass cover are often used as a kind of naturalhothouse.
1. A characteristically dark-colored, nutrient-richorganic matter in soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals; atopsoil horizon containing a large accumulation of organic carbon.[41]
2. In agriculture, any naturalcompost gathered from a woodland or some spontaneous source and used as asoil amendment to aid crop nutrition and improve moisture retention.[42]
3. The solid residues that are a byproduct of thesewage sludge treatment of wastewater, which are also sometimes composted and added to agricultural soils.[43]
A unit of weight or mass used in the United States and British Commonwealth territories and defined differently in each: theshort hundredweight orcental, used in the U.S. customary system, is defined as exactly 100 pounds (45.4 kilograms), while thelong orimperial hundredweight, used in the British imperial system, is defined as 112 pounds (50.8 kilograms). In agriculture, the weight of harvested crops or produce is sometimes reported in hundredweight.
An offspring resulting from sexual reproduction between parent organisms belonging to different breeds, strains, varieties, species, or genera, thereby combining different biological characteristics in a single organism. The traits of hybrids are often mixtures of their parents' traits or are intermediate between them, though they may also differ substantially from either parent, as withhybrid vigor.
Improved or increased size, strength, durability,yield, or any other biological function or quality in ahybrid offspring, relative to the same characteristics as observed in its parents.
Time-lapse of early growth ofmaize plants: two parent plants (left and right), each from a different inbred lineage, were crossed to producehybrid offspring (center), which showshybrid vigor not seen in either of the parents.
Land that isarable,tillable, or generally in a condition suitable for thecultivation of agricultural crops without first requiring major modifications such as clearing of vegetation or rocks or drainage of water, but which nonetheless is not being cultivated,fallowed, or used aspasture.[2]
In thepoultry industry, a heated space in which newly laid eggs are placed in order to keep them warm and sheltered prior to hatching, simulating natural avian incubation in a controlled environment at optimal temperature and humidity and sometimes featuring an automated mechanism capable of periodically turning the eggs as well.
Any species whose natural (i.e. uncultivated) presence or status can reveal the qualitative health or condition of its local environment, often by suggesting the existence of one or more specific environmental characteristics, e.g. wetness, salinity, acidity, etc.[32]
Anycrop that is specifically grown in order to yield a useful product for human industrial processes, such as fuels, fibers, oils, rubber, chemicals, resins, waxes, or dyes; the term generally also includesenergy crops.[7]
Apesticide intended to kill or incapacitateinsects, either by targeting adult insects or by preventing the growth and development of insect eggs or larvae. Insecticides may be effective against a broad spectrum of different types of insects or may target particular species or taxa. In common usage, the term may also include pesticides intended for other kinds ofarthropods which are not technically insects, such as mites and ticks. See alsomiticide.
Alsointegrated farm management (IFM) orintegrated production (IP).
A holistic approach tofarming which combines traditional practices with modern tools and technologies in an effort to optimize bothproductivity andsustainability, ensuring a low environmental impact without compromising the quality or quantity of agricultural products.[22] This philosophy views the farm and its surroundings as an intricately connectedagroecosystem and integrates knowledge from numerous disciplines in order to match cultivation techniques as closely as possible to the demands of specific crops and to the farm's specific location and circumstances. Particular emphasis is placed onorganic methods, efficient use of resources, careful management of soil integrity and fertility, attention tonutrient cycles, preservation ofbiodiversity,precision technologies, health and welfare of domestic animals, adherence to ethical criteria, and in general balancing allinputs and activities with the objectives of protecting the environment, maintaining economic profitability, and fulfilling social or cultural requirements.[44]
Any system of agricultural production that uses relatively large inputs of labor, fertilizer, and/orcapital per unit land area and is accordingly characterized by high productionoutputs, in contrast toextensive agriculture. In the developed world, most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways.
Anintensive approach toanimal husbandry and the production of animal products such as meat, milk, and eggs, practiced atvery large scales and intended to maximize productivity while minimizing expenses. It is generally characterized by raising very large numbers oflivestock (e.g. cattle, pigs, poultry, and fish) simultaneously at high densities (e.g. onfeedlots), using modernmachinery tomechanize or automate agricultural tasks, and incorporating biotechnology methods (e.g.growth hormones) to increaseyields, decrease production times, and prevent losses from pests and disease. Primarily practiced by corporateagribusinesses in the developed world, its outputs are often marketed globally and are major contributors to worldwide food surpluses, though it has also been criticized for environmental and ethical issues.
A type ofmultiple cropping involving the cultivation of two or more crops in proximity, usually with the goal of producing a greateryield within a given area of land by making use of resources or ecological processes that would otherwise not be utilized by a single crop.
The application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals, especially for the purposes of growing agriculturalcrops, maintaining landscapes, orrevegetating disturbed or drought-affected soils. Irrigation systems may also be used as a means ofprotecting crops from frost,suppressing the growth of weeds, preventingsoil consolidation, providing water tolivestock and keeping them cool in hot weather, and controlling airborne dust.
The process by which an area of land is altered from a natural or semi-natural state in order to make it usable for human purposes, e.g. to convert it intoarable land foragriculture. Improvement for agricultural purposes typically involves extensive clearing of trees and other vegetation, removal of large rocks,tilling of soils, and/or flattening orterracing of the natural topography.
A traditionaldomesticated variety of acrop species that has become locally adapted over time to its specific natural and agricultural environment and has remained isolated from other wild and domesticated populations of the species. Landraces are often distinguished fromcultivars andbreeds in the standardized sense, although the termlandrace breed is sometimes used when referring to cattle. Compareheirloom variety.
The application of calcium- and magnesium-rich minerals (collectively known aslime) to soil, in any of a variety of forms, includingmarl,chalk,limestone,burnt lime, orhydrated lime, usually as a means of increasingsoil pH. By acting as bases, these materials can help to neutralize very acidic soils, improving plant growth and increasing the activity of soil microbes.[22] Structure liming can also improve aggregate stability in clay soils.
The process ofaerating soil by applying organic matter orsoil amendments directly to the soil surface (typically duringfallow periods), then mechanically cutting long, narrow, linear grooves or channels into the soil profile to permit infiltration of the additives into the deeper layers of the soil, and finally recovering or refilling the grooves within the same operation. Linear aeration is employed in both gardens and lawns to aid penetration of fertilizers and soil softeners, to improve water retention, and to alleviatesoil compaction in heavily traveled areas, while minimizing disturbances to soil structure.
lint
Ginned cotton, i.e. the fibers themselves after the seeds have been removed.[5]
A mixture of animal faeces and various other organic matter such ascrop residues, commonly aged in aslurry pit and then diluted with water, which is used as an agriculturalfertilizer.
Anydomesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting in order to produce labor and/or agricultural commodities such as meat, milk, eggs, fur, leather, and wool. In certain contexts the term may be used more narrowly to refer exclusively to animals that are bred for consumption, or only to farmedruminants such ascattle andgoats;sheep,pigs, andhorses are also often considered livestock, whilepoultry andfish are usually excluded.
The weight of a live animal prior toslaughter. The price paid for the meat of slaughtered animals is commonly based on either a liveweight ordeadweight basis.[22]
Acover crop that isinterplanted or undersown with a main crop in an agricultural field with the intention of filling the same role as ordinarymulch, namelyweed suppression and regulation of soil temperature and moisture content. Whereas most cover crops are grown while the soil liesfallow and then buried or removed prior to planting acash crop, living mulch is not removed and instead grown simultaneously with the cash crop.
The tendency of the normally erect stems of certain crop plants, especiallycerealgrains such as wheat, rye, and barley, to bend over and break near ground level and become flattened against the ground, which makes them very difficult to harvest and can dramatically reduceyield. Lodging is most commonly caused by adverse weather conditions such as heavy rainfall, hail, and strong winds, but may also occur due to trampling by animals.
A wheat field where heavy rain and wind has causedlodging
Wood that has been processed into uniform sizes suitable for construction, carpentry, or other uses, particularly by sawing cut logs into dimensional boards, planks, beams, etc. which are either rough-sawn or smoothly surfaced on one or more faces. Lumber is referred to as "timber" in many parts of the world, though in the United States and Canada "timber" refers specifically to unprocessed wood in the form of cut logs or standing trees intended for logging.
A type of agriculturalterrace made from earth, or a strip of green, unploughed land left between two areas ofploughed land, often used to mark a temporary boundary betweenfields.[21]
Thesproutedgrain of acereal which has been malted, or any product of the process ofmalting. The term may also refer more specifically to a viscous mixture of fermentable sugars extracted from the malted grain, rich inmaltose,maltotriose, andmaltodextrins, or to any of the various products which can be made with this extract, such asmalt whisky andmalted milk.
A trough or bin used to hold animalfodder which permits animals to eat from it; or a structure or building containing such troughs, where numerous livestock are able to feed simultaneously.
Any organic matter that is used as anorganic fertilizer in agriculture, typically consisting of animalexcreta,compost, and/orplant material. Manures contribute tosoil fertility by adding organic compounds and nutrients such as nitrogen which are essential for plant growth and for the development of ecological networks with soil microorganisms.
A machine used to distributemanure over an agricultural field asfertilizer. Modern manure spreaders typically consist of a trailer towed behind atractor with a conveyor and/or rotating mechanism driven by the tractor'spower take-off.
The solidresidue that results from processing fruits, sugarcane, or sugar beets, and in particular from trampling and squeezing grapes or olives to extract juice. Marc residues have many uses, including as livestock feed.[32]
A specialized branch ofaquaculture involving the cultivation ofmarine organisms in theopen ocean, enclosed sections of the ocean, orsaltwater tanks orraceways, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly foods but also non-food products such as jewellery and cosmetics. Mariculture includes the farming of marine fish,shellfish,molluscs such asclams andoysters, andseaweed, among many other organisms.
mash
Apoultryfeed consisting of a complete ration of groundgrain,soybean meal, alfalfa meal, byproducts from meat processing,skimmed milk, limestone, salt, and/orfish oil, often fortified with vitamins and minerals.[2]
The fruit of forest trees and shrubs, e.g. acorns and nuts, especially when accumulated on the ground.
maternity pen
A warm, well-bedded enclosure in which pregnant animals about to give birth are kept isolated, preventing other animals from disturbing the mother or otherwise interfering with the birthing process.[2]
matron
An adult female horse (amare) that has given birth to afoal.[2]
An open field covered primarily by native grasses, herbs, and other vegetation, with few or no trees and shrubs. Meadows may occur naturally but may also be maintained or artificially created by humans for the production ofhay orfodder or to serve aspasture forlivestock.
The use ofagricultural machinery to mechanize the work of agriculture, thereby substantially increasing the productivity of an agricultural operation. Modern mechanized agriculture may make use oftractors,combine harvesters,aircraft, computers, and satellite imagery, among other technologies.
merchantable volume
Insilviculture, the amount of wood in a tree or stand of trees (typically expressed in units of volume, e.g.board-feet) that is of a quality suitable for harvesting and marketing aslumber. The term is most commonly used to describe an estimatedyield with respect to a particular economic context, which may vary as market conditions and consumer preferences change.[16]
Any method ofirrigation that uses lower water pressures and volumes than traditional irrigation systems. Micro-irrigation champions the approach of distributing small volumes of water very slowly via small-gauge tubing ordrip tape to precise points, often within or immediately above the plant'sroot zone, which allows time for water to penetrate slow-percolation soils rather than simplyrunning off and minimizes the risk of overwatering.
A white liquid secreted by themammary glands of femalemammals, which serves as the primary source of nutrition for nursing infants before they are able to digest solid food. Milk is naturally rich in protein, fats, sugars, and many other nutrients. The collection of milk from various mammal species, includingcattle,goats,sheep,water buffalo,yaks,camels,horses, anddonkeys, among others, is the basis of thedairy industry.
Acow kept primarily for the purpose of producingmilk for home use or limited commercial sale,[2] especially when belonging to a herd of cattle being raised for other purposes.
The process of extractingmilk, traditionally by hand but also byautomated machine, from themammary glands oflactating mammals, especiallycattle,goats,sheep, and water buffalo, or more rarely camels, horses, or donkeys. Lactation occurs naturally in all sexually mature female mammals, though in usable quantities only during or immediately after pregnancy.
A large rural area which produces most or all of themilk consumed in a particular place or by a particular population,[2] by analogy with awatershed. See alsofoodshed.
The process of grinding, crushing, cutting, or pulverizing solid matter into smaller pieces, reducing the average particle size and often changing the shape and other physical properties as well; or the process of breaking down, separating, sorting, grading, or classifying aggregate material into particles of uniform size. Milling is an important primary operation in thepostharvest processing of many agricultural crops, mainlycereal grains andpseudocereals. Historicallymills were powered manually or withdraft animals such as oxen, horses, or donkeys, or by theforce of the wind or theflow of water, though in modern contexts they are usually electrically powered.
The current of flowing water that turns awater wheel, or the channel orsluice that carries this water. A millrace is usually a man-made conduit or ditch that delivers a narrow, rapid, and powerful stream from a reservoir such as amill pond or diverts it from a natural watercourse such as a river, with the force generated by the flow used to power a turbine ormill. The part of the millrace that is upstream of the water wheel is called theheadrace, while the part downstream of the wheel is thetailrace.
A type ofconservation tillage designed toconserve soil quality by minimizing the amount of soil manipulation necessary for successful crop production, typically by completely avoidingprimary tillage and practicing only minimalsecondary tillage.
minor crop
A crop plant that is high in value but is not widely grown. Many fruits, vegetables, and tree nuts may be considered minor crops.[3]
The simultaneouscultivation of crops andraising of livestock for meat, eggs, or milk on the same farm,[46] especially on the same or adjacent lands, and often reusing or recycling the products of one operation to supply the other, e.g. by using some part of the crop harvest for animalfodder, or by using animalmanure as a cropfertilizer.
The practice of cultivating a singlecrop species repeatedly on the same land for many consecutive growing seasons. Monocropping allows farmers to optimize their time and labor by applying the sameinputs, growing methods,machinery,pest controls, etc. to the same crop in the same spaces year after year, but also forgoes the potential benefits of natural diversity and may eventually prove unsustainable by exhausting soil nutrients and requiring increasingly large inputs to compensate.
A curved blade or plate attached to aplough or bulldozer which lifts and at least partially overturns soil and/or pushes it to the side. Mouldboard ploughs generally have a flat bottom spanning the entire width of the tillage zone and may reach depths of 100 to 200 millimetres (4 to 8 in) below the surface.[47]
mouthing
The process of inspecting an animal's teeth to determine its age, as is commonly done with sheep and horses.[5]
Any layer of material applied to the surface of soil for the purpose of conserving soil moisture, improving soil health and fertility, reducingweed growth, and/or enhancing the soil's aesthetic appeal. Mulches are usually organic in nature (e.g.bark chips,manure, andcompost) thoughplasticsheeting and other types of artificial mulch are also common.
Any type of seed product sold as a cluster of seeds fused together and which produces more than one plant when it germinates, after which the multiple plants are typically reduced to individual plants by a process calledsingling.[21]
Very small, snarled or knotted clusters ofcotton fibers present inginned cotton which are difficult to detect, looking like dots or specks in thelint, and equally difficult to remove. Neps are generally a more serious concern than naps because if not detected they will appear as defects in the finished yarn or fabric.[2]
The return, both monetary and non-monetary, to farm operators for their labor, management, and capital, after all production expenses have been paid; i.e.gross farm income minus production expenses. It includes net income from sales of the farm's agricultural products as well as net income attributed to the rental value of farm dwellings, the value of any commodities consumed on the farm, depreciation, and inventory changes. The term is used primarily in United States agricultural policy.[3]
The surgical removal of all or most of the reproductive organ(s) of an animal, male or female, usually with the goal of irreversibly sterilizing the animal by eliminatingsex organs which are essential to its ability to reproduce. In the broadest sense the term may also encompass non-surgical methods of sterilization such as those that employ pharmaceutical drugs, which may or may not be reversible. The male-specific term for neutering iscastration and the female-specific term isspaying, though colloquially "neutering" may be used interchangeably with both. An animal that has not been neutered is said to be intact orentire.
non-program crop
Any agricultural crop or commodity not covered by a federally funded commodity program.[3] Contrastprogram crop.
The phenomenon by which certain varieties of plants adapted to high-latitude climates produce hardier, better-tasting, or higher-yield crops when grown in lower-latitude climates. The effect has been observed in many types of produce grown in the northern United States and Canada, including potatoes, strawberries, and garlic.
Any method of growingcrops or maintainingpasture without disturbing the soil throughtillage, and typically involving minimal or noseedbed preparation. Proponents assert that in certain contexts no-till or low-till techniques can increase the soil's retention of water and organic matter and reduce soil erosion.
Aweed or other undesirable plant that is not merely a nuisance but actually harmful to cultivated crops or other useful plants (by acting as a parasitic plant, strongly outcompeting other plants, or releasingallelopathic chemicals into the soil) or to humans or domestic animals such aslivestock (by poisoning or causing other injury). Many places specify which weeds are noxious and require land users to take steps to control these species.[2]
Anyannualcrop plant used to assist in the establishment of aperennial crop. Nurse crops may help to reduce the incidence of weeds, prevent soil erosion, and shade the perennial crop's seedlings from excessive sunlight; often the nurse crop itself is harvested for a particular product.
1. Any place, often sheltered and irrigated, where plants arecultivated from seed,cuttings, grafts, or some other propagule and young plants are raised until they are mature enough to betransplanted, or to serve as a source of vegetative clones, rootstock, or grafting stock, either for the grower's own use or for commercial sale.[2]
2. A building designed and maintained specifically for raising young animals, especiallycalves orpiglets.[2]
Young plants being raised in pots in anursery in India
The contamination, particularly of surface water sources, by excessive inputs of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Sources of nutrient pollution includesurface runoff from agricultural fields and pastures (where large quantities of nutrient-richfertilizers are commonly applied), discharges from septic tanks andfeedlots, and emissions from combustion.[3]
A building designed for kilning or drying harvestedhops for use in thebrewing of beer.
off-farm stocks
Harvestedwhole grains oroilseeds produced by a particular farm or agricultural operation which have been removed from the farm where they were produced and stored off-site in temporary or permanent storage, e.g. atgrain elevators,mills, or other processing facilities, regardless of their ownership or intended use.[2] This includes supplies of grain which have been sold or distributed to consumers or retailers as well as supplies which have not yet been sold but for which there is no available storage space on the farmer's property. Compareon-farm stocks.
Any plantcrop cultivated specifically for the edible and/or inedible oils that can be extracted from its seeds, which may be used in cooking or in certain non-food products; the non-oil byproducts are also commonly used to produce high-proteinanimal feed.[48] Examples of oilseed crops include soybeans, peanuts, cottonseed, flaxseed, canola, sunflower seeds, and safflower seeds.[7]
Thecultivation of vegetables (i.e. non-woody herbaceous plants) for food, or the science that studies the growing of these plants as edibleproduce.
once grown seed
Seed obtained from plants that have been grown from acertified seed intended for use only by the farmer on his own farm, and not for resale.[21]
once-over tillage
An operation in which a field is tilled and plantedsimultaneously or in quick succession.[33]
on-farm stocks
Harvestedwhole grains oroilseeds which are stored on-site in temporary or permanent storage at or near the same farm where they were grown, regardless of their ownership or intended use.[2] This includes supplies of grain which have already been sold but not yet distributed to consumers or retailers as well as supplies kept for the farmer's own use, and in the broadest sense may also include grain which is still growing in the field and has not yet been harvested. Compareoff-farm stocks.
A type ofrangeland on whichlivestock, particularlycattle, roam freely regardless of land ownership and without being enclosed byfences. Where open range is prescribed by law, the land owner (and not the animal owner) is responsible for erectingexclosure fences to keep animals off of private or public property.
Any intentional planting oftrees orshrubs that is maintained for food production. Most orchards are planted with a single variety of fruit- or nut-producing tree, and are often laid out in a regular grid with wide spacing and grazed or mown grass or bare soil between individual trees to make maintenance and harvesting easy.
Anyfertilizer made from non-synthetic, naturally occurring substances, oftencompost or plant and animal products such ascrop residues ormanure. This is in contrast to many large-scale commercial fertilizers which contain synthetic chemical compounds. Use of organic fertilizers is widely practiced inorganic agriculture.
Seeds which can survive long periods of time in storage and still retain their viability to germinate, especially those capable of tolerating the effects of drying or freezing (generally, temperatures less than 10 °C (50 °F)). Orthodox seeds can be dried to a very low internal moisture content.[50] Contrastrecalcitrant seed.
Any building that is part of an agricultural or residential complex but is detached or distant from other structures, especially one dedicated to some practical purpose and isolated by necessity or convenience on a remote part of a large property. Common agricultural outbuildings includebarns,stables,cellars,silos,granaries,sheds, and housing for farm laborers.
A cluster ofoutbuildings located near outlyingfields orpastures which are distant or isolated from a primaryfarmstead, providing facilities for agricultural operations in remote areas of a very largefarm orranch.
out-wintering
The practice of keepinglivestock (especiallycattle) outdoors on pastureland during the winter, leaving them to fend for themselves for protection from the elements, rather than housing them in an indoor shelter.[13]
overcropping
The practice of growing too manycrops on the same land in the samegrowing season, which may reduceyield for any of a variety of reasons, usually because soil fertility is insufficient to supportmultiple cropping or repeated growing cycles without periodicfallowing.[51]
A building in whichharvested agriculturalproduce (e.g. fruits and vegetables) is packaged for sale prior to distribution to market. Other forms ofpostharvest processing such as cleaning may also take place in the same facility.
paddy farming
A form of wet-field agriculture in which semiaquatic plants such asrice andtaro are grown in soils inundated in shallow pools of water, generally 10–15 centimetres (3.9–5.9 in) in depth, for most or all of the growing cycle. Most plants cannot survive in these conditions, but rice is specially adapted to supply oxygen to its lower parts even when fully submersed.Paddy fields involve huge quantities of water and so are most common in humid wetlands such as in many parts of East Asia. It remains the dominant method ofrice farming in modern times.
The practice of applying moderate heat tomilk and other heat-sensitive liquids in order to reduce the native microbial load. Pasteurization uses temperatures which are much lower than in conventional sterilization techniques but still high enough to deactivate or denature theproteins and other molecules used bybacteria and other microorganisms, usually not killing them outright but significantly slowing their growth and reproduction, thereby delaying the inevitable onset ofspoilage and extending the product'sshelf-life.[52]
A sedentary form ofpastoralism in whichlivestock are raised on the samepastureland for most or all of their lives, rather than continuously being moved as in traditional nomadic pastoralism. Pastoral farmers typically have some form of ownership of the land they use, giving them an economic incentive toimprove the land to meet the needs of their animals (e.g. byirrigation).
A type of animalhusbandry in whichherds of domestic animals are released onto large areas of vegetated outdoor land, known aspastures, forgrazing, traditionally by fully or partially nomadic peoples who move around with their herds, and generally in places where environmental conditions such as aridity, poor soils, and extreme temperatures make growing crops difficult or impossible.
Any land used forgrazing, especially enclosed tracts offarmland grazed by domesticatedlivestock such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. Pasture vegetation mainly consists ofgrasses andforbs and is typically grazed throughout the summer. Pasture is often distinguished from, but may in the broadest sense include, other agricultural land types such asmeadows,rangelands, or other unenclosed pastoral areas.
A developmental stage of thepeanut plant in which a fertilized flower produces an elongatedovary which enters the soil and develops underground into a pod and eventually a peanut.
A type ofmill or machine press used to compress and mold bulk quantities of powdered or fine-grained material into compact, high-density, homogeneous units called pellets, which are often much easier to store, transport, and distribute than in their original form. Many agricultural materials are commonly pelletized, including fertilizers and pesticides.Compound animal feed is usually milled from a feed mixture into small pellets the size of a kernel of corn so as to ensure a uniform ration for each fed animal.[32]
(of an agricultural product, particularly a food) Vulnerable to natural processes ofdecomposition and decay within a relatively short time period after beingharvested or sold to a consumer (usually a few days or weeks), such that the product graduallyspoils or rots, irreversibly losing the structure, consistency, flavor, nutritional value, or other qualities characteristic of its fresh form. In the absence of specific treatments, virtually all raw foods eventually succumb to these processes via chemical reactions with their environment, both biotic (e.g. decomposition by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi) and abiotic (e.g. dehydration by atmospheric evaporation), though some foods decay faster than others. Many methods offood processing andpreservation have been developed to prevent or delay decomposition in order to make foods usable or marketable for longer periods. These range from storage in cold, dry, or oxygen-poor environments (all of which can greatly reduce the rate of microbial growth) topasteurization or treatment with protective waxes or chemicalpreservatives. The most perishable foods are generally those for which preservation is difficult or undesirable, especially freshproduce such as fruits and vegetables, but also animal meat. Commercial foods sold in a cooked, canned, or extensively processed form may be considered "non-perishable" for the purpose of calculatingshelf life orexpiration dates.
An amorphous glass mineral of volcanic origin with a relatively high water content and the unusual property of expanding to many times its original volume when heated sufficiently. Expanded perlite is commonly used as asoil amendment inhorticulture, where its low density and high permeability help to improve drainage and preventsoil compaction. It is also sometimes used alone as agrowth medium for startingcuttings or inhydroponics.
An approach to land management that adopts arrangements observed in healthy natural ecosystems, with particular emphasis on utilizing creative design principles derived from whole systems thinking. Permaculture principles are often employed inregenerative agriculture,rewilding, andsustainable agriculture, but the concept has a wide range of applications, including inecological engineering, water resource management, andarchitecture.
Any chemical or biological agent used to deter, incapacitate, kill, sterilize, or otherwise discourage the activity or proliferation of one or more target organisms consideredpests by humans, which includesherbicides used to controlnoxious plants,insecticides,miticides,fungicides,nematicides, antimicrobials for bacteria and viruses, and any other substance intended to control apathogen of any kind.[7] Pesticides are widely used in agriculture to protectcrop plants ordomestic animals from pathogens which may cause or transmit disease or destroy crop value, though they are also used for a huge variety of other purposes. Some are applied directly to the pest, while others are applied to the crop or animal itself, or to the air or soil around it. Pesticide use may also have drawbacks, including unintended or off-target effects such as toxicity to humans.
The use ofgenetic engineering technologies to insert one or moregenes encoding usefulpharmaceuticals into a host plant or animal that would otherwise not express those genes, thereby creating agenetically modified organism. Crops modified in this way are sometimes calledpharma crops.
A domesticswine of either sex, especially a member of the speciesSus domesticus, often considered a domesticated subspecies of the wild boar,Sus scrofa.
piglet
A young domesticpig of either sex. See alsofarrow.
A method of cultivatingpineapples in temperate climates, consisting of a trench dug into the ground and covered with transparent glass, with two internal walls dividing it into three troughs. Pineapples are grown in the central trough while the outer troughs are filled with fresh manure, which gives off heat as it decomposes, keeping the central trough warm and humid.
pinery
1. A natural or cultivated pine forest which is harvested for timber.
Acrop grown to improve the general fertility of a parcel of land prior tosowing another, typically more valuable crop on the same land. Farmers often permit livestock tograze the pioneer crop in the hope that their dung will add soil nutrients.[21]
A branch ofaquaculture involving the raising offish in tanks, enclosures, orhatcheries with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly food.
A two-handedagricultural tool with between two and five long, thin tines and a long handle, used to efficiently pitch or toss large clumps of loose material such ashay,straw, leaves, ormanure. Pitchforks are used for a wide variety of tasks such as feedingcattle andbucking hay.
The deliberate and systematic reproduction of plants in agriculture and horticulture, typically involving theartificial selection of which individual plants will breed in order to produce progeny with desirable characteristics.
A large-scale estate which specializes infarmingcash crops, most commonly cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, opium, fruit trees, rubber trees, and forest trees.
An artificialmulch consisting of a thin film of plastic polymers, used in both crop production and landscaping for the same reasons as natural mulches, i.e. to suppressweeds, conserve water, and maintain soil integrity. Crops grow through regularly spaced holes cut in the plastic film. It is most commonly used withrow crops, often in conjunction withdrip irrigation.
The practice of interweaving the living and dead branches of a hedgerow so that they become tangled, either for the purpose of strengthening the hedge by forming a natural fence or wall which continues to thicken as it grows, or for ornamental reasons.
Anyfarm implement used to loosen or overturn soil in preparation forsowing seed ortransplanting, a practice known asploughing. Ploughs typically consist of a series of blades attached to a wooden or metallic frame, often with wheels, which is then pushed or pulled either by humans, bydraft animals, or, on modern farms, with atractor.
A hard layer in thesubsoil caused by excessive compression due to repeatedploughing at the same depth over multiple consecutiveseasons.[21] See alsohardpan.
The use of aplough in the cultivation of agricultural land. Ploughing is an ancient and fundamental agricultural technique, the primary purpose of which is to evenly distribute fresh nutrients, moisture, and air through the uppermost layers of the soil while also buryingweeds andcrop residues to decay. Modern ploughed fields are typically left to dry and thenharrowed prior to planting. The use of a plough usually leaves the soil with a rough, unfinished look and parallel trenches calledfurrows; conventional, intensive ploughing practices may contribute tosoil erosion and the formation ofhardpan.
The large metal blade that is the leading edge of themouldboard of aplough, used to cut through large amounts of soil to the bottom of thefurrow. Certain ploughs have acoulter immediately preceding the ploughshare.[21]
Inhorticulture, a juvenile plant,seedling, orcutting germinated and grown individually in a very small container filled with a small amount ofpotting soil or othergrowth medium, with the intention oftransplanting it into a larger container or into the ground after it has grown to a certain size (at which point the soil or growth medium is held together by the plant's roots, allowing it to be easily removed from the starting container). Plug plants are often grown by commercialnurseries in large numbers in portable seed starter trays under controlled conditions, which makes it convenient to manage numerous plants during the early stages of growth and to ensure their health and viability before selling to customers, who may find establishing agarden with transplanted plugs to be easier than starting from seed.
A deep trough or basin designed to immerse and bathelivestock in a liquidpesticide formulation or other treatment. Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, or horses are prodded to walk through a narrow channel containing the liquid, briefly submerging most or all of their bodies, which makes it possible to treat large herds of animals quickly and efficiently.[53] See alsodrenching.
Bornwithout horns, used when describinglivestock of a species that is normally horned, e.g. in cattle, goats, and sheep. The term may refer to animals that have been selectively bred to be naturally hornless or, in the broadest sense, to otherwise horned animals that have had their horn buds removed after birth bydisbudding.[5]
Unintentional cross-pollination of wild plants by crop plants or vice versa, or between distinct crop varieties or cultivars, through natural mechanisms of pollen dispersal (e.g. wind or insects).
The practice of growing or raising more than one species, variety, or breed at the same time and place, often in imitation of the biodiversity of natural ecosystems. Contrastmonoculture.
A type ofgreenhouse in the form of a typically semi-circular, elongated tunnel made from a steel frame covered with transparent polyethylene; temperature, humidity, and air circulation can be adjusted by the opening and closing of doors or vents. Polytunnels are used in similar ways to glass greenhouses androw covers, e.g. forseason extension or asnurseries. Though primarily designed to provide temperature increases ranging from 5 to 35 °C (9 to 63 °F) above the outdoor air temperature, they can also protect plants (and animals) against extreme weather and the drying effect of wind.
The formation of small ponds or pools of water in agricultural fields due tosurface runoff from oversaturated or poorly draining soils, or from heavy precipitation orirrigation.[2]
Occurring after the stage in a plant's life when the first leaves emerge from beneath the soil. The term is used in particular to describe a class ofherbicides intended to be applied toweeds which are already leafy or established. Post-emergent herbicides such asglyphosate typically work by killing the cells of mature leaves, thereby inhibiting photosynthesis and causing the whole plant to die; they are generally ineffective on very young plants and seeds. Contrastpre-emergent.
1. The stage of commercial crop production immediately followingharvesting, which may include any of various processing and handling activities necessary for the harvested crop to become marketable, such as cleaning, drying, cooling, sorting, and packing. Postharvest treatment largely determines a crop's final quality and how and whether it can be sold.
2. Any activities that occur after agricultural products leave or are sold from the farm or ranch where they were produced.[35]
A quantitative limit on the amount of an agricultural commodity (e.g. tobacco or peanuts) that can be produced and/or marketed under the provisions of a governmentalprice support program.[32]
A device, commonly found ontractors but also sometimes on farm trucks or other vehicles, that transmits electrical and/or mechanical energy from a power source (e.g. a running engine) to an attachedimplement or a separate machine which is either pulled behind on a trailer or mounted on the vehicle itself. Modern tractors almost always have a power take-off, which can be connected to a wide variety of equipment to supply power for virtually any automatable agricultural task, e.g.mowing,ploughing,tilling, compacting, distributing agrochemicals,harvesting, etc.
A large-scale agricultural management strategy based on observing, measuring, and responding to inter- and intra-field variability incrops andcrop yields with the goal of optimizing returns on inputs while preserving resources. Precision agriculture relies on advanced technologies such asGPS,remote sensing,satellite imagery,multispectral imagery, andagricultural drones to collect data on numerous agricultural variables and to generate datasets and maps of spatial variability which can then be used by variable-rate (and often fully automated) applications to optimally distribute resources.
A method ofseeding that involves placing seed with attention to precise spacing and depth, either by hand or mechanically, as opposed tobroadcast seeding. Precision seeding usually requires less seed and avoids overcrowding and the need for thinning, but is best suited for plants with very high germination rates in order to make full use of the seeded area.
precleaning
Removing unwanted foreign material such as weeds, seeds, dirt, stems, and cobs from harvestedgrain before it is dried.[32]
Occurring beforegermination, or before the stage in a plant's life when the first leaves emerge from beneath the soil. The term is used in particular to describe a class ofherbicides intended to be applied toweeds before their leaves have become established. Pre-emergent herbicides such asparaquat work by inhibiting one or more enzymes that are active in cell division only in newseedlings; they do not inhibit germination from seed itself, nor are they effective on established, mature plants. Contrastpost-emergent.
An economic index used to monitor and indicate changes in the prices paid by farmers for goods and services used in crop and livestock production as well as those needed for farm family living. In addition to the prices of common farminputs such asfertilizer, the index also includes interest on debt, taxes payable on farm real estate, and wage rates paid to hired labor. It is used to calculate the price of many fees and fines required by agricultural law, e.g. fees for grazing livestock on federal land.
An economic index used to monitor and indicate changes in the prices received by farmers for their products at the point of first sale, usually the farm itself or a local market. Together with theprices paid index, it is used to calculate theparity ratio.
Any general-purposetillage that is relatively deep and thorough and which leaves the soil surface with a rough, unfinished texture, such asploughing, as opposed to subsequent, shallower, and more selectivesecondary tillage. Primary tillage is usually performed immediately after the lastharvest, with the objectives of loosening, softening, and aerating the soil to a particular depth, incorporatingcrop residues and/orfertilizers, and killingweeds.
A generalized term used to refer to a variety offarm-produced foodcrops, usually includingfruits andvegetables and sometimes alsograins and other products, especially implying that such foods are fresh and generally in the same state as when and where they wereharvested.
A crop for whichdeficiency payments are paid by a government agency to participating producers, e.g. wheat, corn, barley, grain sorghum, oats, upland cotton, and rice.[32] Contrastnon-program crop.
Anycrop plant whose harvested products naturally contain high concentrations ofproteins oramino acids and are therefore important asstaple foods or in helping to meet the nutritional requirements of humans or domestic animals. Manyoilseeds andgrains are considered protein crops.
The selective removal of certain unwanted plant parts or tissues, such as branches, buds, or roots, from crops or landscape plants during cultivation for any of a variety of reasons, including controlling or redirecting growth, improving or sustaining the plant's health or appearance, reducing risk from falling branches, preparing juvenile plants fortransplanting, and increasing theyield or quality of harvestable flowers and fruits. See alsotopping,pollarding, andcoppicing.
Any domesticated non-grass species that is not a truecereal but is nonetheless cultivated and harvested in much the same way as a cereal, with its "grain" or seed beingmilled intoflour and otherwise used in the same manner as cereal grain. Common examples includeamaranth,quinoa,buckwheat, andchia. Compared with true cereals, pseudocereals are similarly rich in many different nutrients but do not containgluten, making them popular substitutes ingluten-free foods.
The practice oftilling ricepaddies while flooded, traditionally accomplished by dragging a weightedharrow through the submerged soil of the paddy field but also with mechanizedimplements.[54]
An agricultural pest control strategy that utilizes theintercropping of repellent "push" plants and attractive "pull" plants to divert pests, typically insects, away from vulnerablecash crops. For example, noxious plants (e.g.catnip andDesmodium) may be planted between rows of a valuablecereal crop to repel or "push" certain herbivorous insects away from the cereal, while a more preferabletrap crop (e.g. someBrachiaria grasses) is simultaneously planted around the perimeter of the field to attract or "pull" in the insects and keep them there.
A traditional stone tool for manually grinding various materials, especially formillinggrain intoflour, consisting of a pair of smooth, heavy stones which are rubbed against each other with the grain in between them. A lower stone, called asaddle quern, is usually stationary, while another stone, called amuller,rubber, orhandstone, is placed on top of the lower stone and moved by hand in a back-and-forth or rotary motion; often the upper stone has a central hole through which the unground grain is poured and a handle to help rotate it.
A type ofhorticulture in which the soil surface is raised above the surrounding ground level and usually enclosed in some way within a structure known as araised bed. These elevatedseedbeds allow gardeners to separate their gardens from the surrounding environment and therefore easily maintain the properties of the soil by optimizing density, nutrient levels, and water infiltration and drainage, and adding a barrier to the movement of pests and pathogens from adjacent natural soils. They may also be desirable because they do not require digging into the ground, which may be difficult or impractical in some places.
The natural division of the stems, shoots, or limbs of a plant into successively smaller versions of the same structures as they grow and develop; e.g. the trunks of trees diverge into branches which themselves diverge into smaller branches and so on. Horticulturists artificially stimulate ramification through repeatedpruning,coppicing, orpollarding, which in many species, particularly trees and shrubs, induces the divergence of new branches from existing branches. This technique can increase theyield of orchards by inducing the formation of numerous fruit-bearing branches in fruit trees.
A tract of land dedicated toranching, i.e. the raising of grazinglivestock such as cattle and sheep. The term is used primarily in North America, where it usually implies a very large, open area of privately owned or leased grassland (i.e.pastureland), though similar livestock operations exist worldwide on all types of land. See alsostation.
Anygrassland,shrubland, woodland, wetland, or desert area that isgrazed by domesticlivestock or wild animals and is generally not suitable for cultivating crops.[2] Rangelands are less intensively managed thanpasturelands in that they are dominated primarily by native vegetation rather than by plants established by humans, and typically are not subjected to agricultural practices such asirrigation and the use offertilizers.
The practice of harvesting a crop plant (particularly amonocot species) by cutting most of the above-ground portion of the plant but leaving the roots and the shoot apices intact so as to allow the plant to recover and produce a fresh crop in a subsequent growing season. This procedure usually can be sustained only for a few seasons, asyield tends to decline with each season. Ratoon crops include sugarcane, pineapples, and bananas.
Seeds that cannot survive the effects of drying or freezing (generally, temperatures less than 10 °C (50 °F)) and which therefore cannot be stored for long periods of time because they tend to rapidly lose viability. Recalcitrant seeds do not acquire desiccation tolerance during development and are often shed from their parent plants with a relatively high moisture content, making them especially vulnerable to moisture loss.[7] Contrastorthodox seed.
A type ofsuccession planting in which a new crop is sown or planted in the same field as an existing crop shortly before harvesting the existing crop and clearing it from the field, which then leaves the land available for the newly planted crop to use.[48] This cycle may be repeated throughout the growing season or even year-round with crops intended for various uses, includingcash crops andcover crops, as long as the soil remains fertile.
The processing of animal products into stable, usable materials, especially the conversion offatty tissue intolard ortallow, but also the repurposing of bones, cartilage, and otheroffal left behind afterslaughtering, or any other material which for aesthetic or sanitary reasons is not suitable as food. Rendering may be done in various ways but generally involves grinding or finely chopping the material, drying it (often bysteam-drying), and separating the fat from bone, protein, and fine solids (usually by pressing or centrifugation). Both edible and inedible commodities can be produced in this way. Manyslaughterhouses perform their own rendering, while others sell their offal to independent rendering operations.
A ratio of the amount of unusedcrop residue left in a field or polytunnel afterharvesting a particularcrop to the amount of useful crop products harvested (i.e. theyield), usually expressed in terms of the relative masses of residues and products and particularly useful as a metric for the efficiency ofbioenergy operations which convert the residues tobiochar.
A large chicken raised for its meat and suitable for roasting, generally at least 12 weeks old and weighing at least 4 pounds (1.8 kilograms).[16] Comparebroiler.
The practice of identifying and removing plants with undesirable characteristics (e.g. plants that are diseased or of an unwanted shape, color, or variety) from agricultural fields, often by hand. The plants, known asrogues, are removed to preserve the quality of the desirablecrop plants, often by way of preventing undesirable characteristics from propagating into subsequent generations.[21]
An agricultural implement, typicallytractor-drawn, used for flattening an area of land by breaking up large clumps of soil, pushing stones into the soil, and generally creating a smooth, firmseedbed, especially followingploughing ordisc harrowing.[21]
Anycrop plant whose edible or usable portion is harvested from under the ground. Examples include beets, carrots, onions, potatoes, and turnips.[55] These parts may or may not include the plant's actual roots.
root pruning
The mechanical severing or trimming of plant roots, either intentionally or unintentionally, often by the passage of an agricultural implement through soil. When deliberate, it is often done so as to make a plant easier totransplant or to slow its growth.[14]
The layers ofsoil or othersubstrate penetrated by a plant'sroots and from which the roots uptake water and nutrients, i.e. the subterranean space that directly influences and is influenced by root growth and activity, encompassing the entire network of vascular roots,rhizomes,tubers, and all other below-ground plant parts extending vertically and laterally beneath the surface, and by some definitions includingaerial roots as well. Providing this space with consistent access to water, oxygen, and mineral nutrients is essential for normal plant growth.
The practice of periodically moving herds ofgrazinglivestock between enclosed sections ofpasture known aspaddocks, allowing the animals to graze the new paddock while the unoccupied paddocks recover and regrow vegetation, as opposed to allowing continuous grazing of the same land indefinitely or feeding the animals in afeedlot. See alsocrop rotation.
Inrotational grazing, livestock are rotated through a series of fenced-off pastures, each of which is able to meet all of the animals' basic needs (food, water, shade/shelter, etc.)
roughage
Any animal feedstuff with high fiber content, such ashay orstraw.[21]
Any flexible, transparent or semi-transparent material, such as fabric or plastic sheeting, that is used as a protective covering to shield plants from extreme temperatures and wind, as well as from insect damage and large herbivores. Row cover can also provide a limited amount of warming in the same way asgreenhouses.
Anycrop that can be planted in rows wide enough to allow it to betilled or otherwise cultivated by agricultural machinery specifically designed for that purpose. Such crops are generallysown bydrilling rather than bybroadcast seeding.
A method of wildlandrangerenovation in which existing vegetation is turned over in a series of long strips, effectively clearing the land in order to improve water infiltration, hasten the decay of organic matter, and reduce competition for nutrients in the soil,[2] which can help plant species usable by grazing animals to colonize and spread across the range.
1. To stir a soil surface with an implement possessing tines, e.g. a wire rake, but without turning the soil over completely, often to remove shallow-rooted weeds.
2. To use a sharp tool to create a nick or slit in the hard outer coat of a seed in order to aid the penetration of moisture to theendosperm and thereby speed upgermination.
A handheld agricultural tool designed with one or more curved blades, sharp on the inside edge, used for mowing grass or harvesting crops, especiallyreapinggrain crops prior tothreshing. The action of the scythe has largely been automated in modern agricultural machinery such asreapers andcombine harvesters. The scythe is similar to asickle, but has a longer handle intended to be used with two hands instead of one.
Any method that allows acrop to be grown and/orharvested beyond its natural outdoorgrowing season or harvest season. Season extension practices most commonly aim to overcome low temperatures or inadequate sunlight in climates where cold weather and shorter days limit the growing season in the spring and fall, but can also include techniques designed to address other seasonally varying conditions such as precipitation and consumer demand, or simply to keep mature crops alive until immediately before the harvest (as opposed to applyingpostharvestfood preservation technologies to preventspoilage during storage).
second
Tohoe between rows ofrootcrops that have previously been thinned out.[21]
secondary tillage
seed cotton
Raw cotton which has been harvested but not yetginned or processed in any other way, containing seeds,lint, and possibly foreign matter.[2]
seed crop
Acrop grown specifically so thatseeds can be harvested from the mature plants, as opposed to crops grown for their edible or usable non-seed parts without regard for the quality or quantity of any seeds they may produce. A secondary seed crop may be maintained alongside a primarycash crop in order to ensure an adequate supply of seeds for future plantings and/or to manage crop phenotypes by theartificial selection of seeds from parents with desirable characteristics.
The process of coating plantseeds with clay,biofertilizers,pesticides, or inert materials to give them a uniform shape and to increase their size and weight in order to improve visibility, ease of planting,germination rates, or resistance to disease.[7]
A mounted or tractor-drawn machine that automates the action ofsowing crop seeds, usually by permitting a specified quantity of seed to pass through ahopper with each rotation of a drive wheel and then through tubes that extend to the soil surface, where the seeds are deposited and covered with soil to a precise depth. The result is a series of evenly spaced rows with seeds distributed uniformly between them.
Anytreatment applied toseeds in order to improve their viability in storage or their likelihood ofgermination upon beingsown. A huge variety of physical, chemical, and biological methods have been developed for different plant species, generally to protect the seed from extreme temperatures or pathogens and to aid the establishment of youngseedlings into mature plants, includingpriming,steeping, hardening,pelleting, coating,stratification, andpregermination, among others.
The local soil environment in which seeds aresown, often including not only the soil but also a specially builtcold frame,hotbed, orraised bed used togerminate the seeds in a controlled environment beforetransplanting the resultingseedlings into more natural soils in a garden or field. The use of seedbeds can substantially increase germination rates.
The young plant thatgerminates from a plant embryo contained within aseed.
seedlot
A quantity of seeds, cones, or any other plant propagule of the same species, source, or quality, especially a quantity representing a single collection collected on the same date and at the same location, or even from the same individual plant.[16]
Inorchardry, the total amount of blossoms or fruits growing on one or more cultivated trees at a particular time, or the total amount produced by or harvested from one or more trees during agrowing season or production cycle; an approximate quantification of a tree or orchard's totalproductivity.[5]
Any structure with a roof or covering that partially obstructs light from reaching the space beneath it (e.g. a mesh fabric or wood slats), providing partial shade to plants or animals living inside. Shade houses are commonly used inhorticulture to provide optimal conditions for the growth of shade-loving plants, attenuating direct sunlight and keeping temperatures cool while still permitting air circulation and enough light forphotosynthesis to occur.
A type ofagriculture in which a landowner allows atenant to cultivate a portion of his or her land in return for a share of thecrops produced on that land.
The natural detachment and dispersal of a plant's fruit or seeds upon reaching maturity, i.e. when the fruit is ripe. For agricultural crops where the harvested seed is valuable, such as cerealgrains, shattering is usually undesirable because natural dispersal mechanisms often scatter the small seeds haphazardly over the ground, making it difficult or impossible to collect them, while seeds that remain attached to the plant are much easier to harvest. Hence farmers try to time the harvest to occur immediately before their crops begin to shatter. Heavy rain and strong winds may cause premature shattering, which can result in significant yield losses.
A bundle of cut stems from acereal crop (especially wheat) which have been bound together afterreaping, traditionally bysickle orscythe but on some modern farms by machines such as areaper-binder. Multiple sheaves are then "shocked" or arranged into conicalstooks to allow the grain to dry beforethreshing.
The process by which thewoollenfleece of a sheep or other wool-bearing mammal is cut or shaved from its body. Adult sheep are typically shorn once each year.
A building or facility which accommodates large-scaleshearing of wool-bearing animals such as sheep, and sometimes also related activities such asclassing, pressing, and storing the wool.
2. Theskin from a recently shorn sheep orlamb that has been tanned or dressed with the wool left on, having a suede surface on one side and clipped fur on the other.
Aplunge dip designed specifically forsheep, containing a liquidpesticide formulation in which the sheep are briefly bathed or immersed in order to kill or remove ectoparasites living on their skin or in their wool.
A type of agriculture in which specific plots of land are cleared andcultivated temporarily, often byslash-and-burn methods and for just a fewgrowing seasons, then abandoned and allowed to liefallow, reverting to their natural vegetation over many more seasons, while the cultivator migrates to a new plot.
shoat
A young domesticpig of either sex, usually from the age ofweaning up to five months old and weighing 50 to 160 pounds (23 to 73 kg).[5]
A handheld agricultural tool designed with one or more curved blades, sharp on the inside edge, and typically used forreapinggrain crops or cutting succulentforage for feeding livestock. The sickle is similar to ascythe, but used with one hand instead of two.
Either of a pair of long, curved feathers in the tail feathers of arooster.[14]
side dressing
The practice of applyingfertilizers,manure,pesticides, or othersoil amendments to the edge or side of arow of crops rather thanfrom directly above, typically by using acultivator fitted with a side-distributing attachment or anotherimplement specially designed for this purpose.[2] This method is usually slower but allows more precise and more cost-effective distribution than overhead application.
A type of animalfodder made from the green foliage of crop plants preserved by a process offermentation and storage calledensilage,ensiling, orsilaging, which typically involves piling and compressing large amounts of cut green vegetation in an oxygen-poor environment, such as a pit orsilo or a bale wrapped tightly with plastic film. Silage is usually made from maize, sorghum, or othercereals, using the entire green plant (not just the grain).
The practice ofmanaging or directly controlling the establishment, growth, composition, and quality of natural or deliberately plantedforests for any of a number of reasons, especiallytimber production but also for thecultivation of other forestcrops.
sire
The male parent of an animal. The term is used alongsidedam, especially for domestic mammals such ascattle and horses.
The killing,dressing, andbutchering of domesticlivestock, usually for food but also for other reasons, including harvestingpelts orculling animals that are diseased or otherwise unsuitable for consumption.
An unplantedskip row left between planted rows in atobacco field to allow people and machinery to access the plants in the middle of the field. Usually, two sled rows are left for every four rows of tobacco plants.[2]
A hole, tank, reservoir, or other holding area, often lined with concrete but open to the air, into which liquidanimal waste and other unusable organic byproducts of agricultural operations, known asslurry, is dumped and then allowed to decompose naturally over a long period of time into a nutrient-rich solution that can with further treatment be reused as afertilizer. The decomposition process often releases toxic gases, necessitating the use of personal protective equipment when working near slurry pits.
A dense, fast-growing plant species capable and often cultivated specifically for the purpose of suppressing the growth ofweeds by competing strongly for access to light, water, and nutrients.[14] An ideal smother crop competes with the weeds but not with other crops. Once it has served its purpose, it may be ploughed into the soil asgreen manure along with any weeds that may have survived. Smother crops are an example ofbiological pest control.
Any heat-producing device placed between the trees of anorchard to keep the trees warm and prevent the accumulation of frost on fruits and flowers, which are often highly vulnerable to damage from cold temperatures. Historically, smudge pots burned petroleum to produce an open flame at the top of a long chimney, though colloquially the term now encompasses modernfrost control methods, which usually rely on propane or electricspace heaters instead.
Old-fashionedsmudge pots in an orange grove in California
Any substance which is added to soil to improve the soil'squality, especially itsfertility andmechanics, either to make poor soils more usable or to maintain soils that are already in good condition. In the broadest sense, the term includes all organic and synthetic soil-bornefertilizers,pesticides, and other agrichemicals, as well as other soil additives such asperlite andvermiculite.
The degradation ofsoil structure, generally by an increase in bulk density and/or decrease inporosity, due to externally or internally applied loads.[56] Conventional agricultural methods, especially the repeated use of heavymachinery, often lead to compaction of thesubsoil, creating impermeable underground layers such ashardpan which severely restrict water and nutrient cycles and thereby adversely affect crop growth, yield, and quality, not to mention numerous off-site ecological processes.
Asoil amendment containing living microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi which form symbiotic,mutualistic relationships with plants growing in the soil, benefiting the growth and health of plants in any of a variety of ways, typically by improving plant nutrition (as withbiofertilizers), stimulating plant hormone production, or inducingsystemic acquired resistance to plant diseases.
The scientific study ofsoil as a natural resource, including its formation, classification, and mapping; the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soils; and how these properties relate to the use and management of soils for agricultural purposes.
A non-chemicalpest control method applied to soils before planting, in which the soil ismulched, covered with a transparent plastic sheet, and then exposed to direct sunlight, creating agreenhouse effect which traps solar energy and increases the soil temperature to levels that kill or weaken soil-borne pathogens, including many bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, mites, andweeds, thereby preventing their proliferation when the sheet is removed and the soil is finally cultivated. Solarization is most effective in warm climates, and is usually practiced on a relatively small scale ingardens or onorganic farms.
Often used interchangeably withseeding andplanting.
The process of distributing theseeds (or any other type of propagule) ofcrop plants in or upon an area of fertile soil, either by hand or by mechanical methods. Sowing is one of the first steps in any seasonal farming operation.
The surgical removal of theovaries (and sometimes also theoviducts anduterus) of a female animal, which permanently prevents reproduction and eliminates the secretion of ovarian hormones. It is commonly performed onlivestock as a method of birth control or behavioral modification, or to improve the commercial value of certain products harvested from the mature animal; e.g.heifers are usually spayed at a young age in order to improve the quality of their meat.[5] The male equivalent is calledcastration.
The process by which an agricultural product (typically food) becomes unsuitable for use or ingestion by the consumer. Naturaldecomposition of agricultural crops by bacteria and fungi is the most common cause of food spoilage. Depending on the type of product,shelf life may be significantly increased with proper packaging and storage and by the application of variousfood preservation techniques.
The planting of small sections of a plant cut fromrhizomes orstolons, known assprigs, includingcrowns and roots, but without any accompanying soil (i.e. only the bare-root sprig itself is planted). This differs fromplugs, which aretransplanted from containers along with small amounts of soil, andsod, which consists of sheets ofturfgrass and the uppermost layers of the soil substrate. Sprigs may be planted manually or mechanically, and are usually placed at regularly spaced intervals infurrows or holes.
The overhead application of water to a crop by any of a wide range of mechanisms and designs, encompassing both stationary and movingsprinklers, which are often fully or partially automated, e.g.wheel lines andcenter-pivot systems.[2]
The undesirablegermination ofwheatkernels that often occurs on wheat crops when wet field conditions persist in the final stage of crop maturation, just prior to and during theharvest. Recently cut wheat that has been left lying in the field prior tothreshing is particularly vulnerable;windrowing and drying the cut stalks as quickly as possible is therefore a high priority for wheat farmers. Sprouted kernels contain extremely high concentrations of the enzymealpha-amylase, which can negatively impact the baking quality of flour made from the wheat; the presence of this enzyme can be determined by theFalling Number test.
A building divided into separate stalls in which domesticlivestock, especiallyhorses, are kept, sheltering them from the elements and giving them a private space where they can reside during illness or pregnancy.
stag
A malebovine animal (abull) that has been castrated relatively late in life, e.g. after reaching maturity, as opposed to the normal practice of castrating males while they are stillcalves.[5] Comparesteer.
staking
The practice of supporting the growth of a plant by placing a stake or artificial support in the ground next to it.[37] It is widely used to cultivate plants with vine-like habits.
Anytextile fiber, natural or synthetic, of discrete and consistent length, as opposed to afilament fiber, for which length varies continuously. Staple fibers are defined by a characteristic length, to which either natural fibers consistently grow (e.g. certaincultivars of cotton tend to produce short, medium, long, or extra-long staple lengths), or to which synthetic fibers orblends are consistently cut after manufacture.
A food that is eaten routinely and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of the standard diet for a given population or demographic, supplying many or most of the basic nutrients needed for survival or health. Staple foods vary by location and culture but are typically inexpensive or readily available foods that can be stored for long periods of time withoutspoiling or decaying. Examples includecereals, starchytubers orroot vegetables,meat,fish,eggs, anddairy products.
A large landholding dedicated to the raising ofgrazinglivestock, especially cattle or sheep. The term is used primarily in Australia, New Zealand, and other British Commonwealth territories, and has the same meaning as the North American termranch. An owner or operator of a station is called agrazier,pastoralist, or runholder.
An upright conical or tent-like arrangement ofsheaves of the cut stalks of agrain crop, placed so as to keep the grain-heads off the ground prior to collection forthreshing. Stooked grains typically include wheat, barley, oats, and maize.
The leaves, stalks, and otherfield residues of certain crops, especially maize, sorghum, and soybean, that are left in a field after harvesting. It may be used as amulch orgreen manure, directly grazed by livestock, or dried and collected asfodder.
The process of treating theseeds of certain plant crops with any of various treatments intended to simulate the natural conditions that the seeds typically experience prior togermination. The seeds of many plant species naturally undergo a phase ofembryonic dormancy which prevents them from sprouting prematurely in environments with suboptimal growing conditions, where the probability of survival is low. In order to break this dormancy, generally these seeds must be exposed to a precise combination of cold temperatures, moisture, and/or some form of physical damage capable of penetrating the hard outer seed coat, often in a specific order and for specific lengths of time. Only after surpassing this developmental barrier are the internal biochemical reactions triggered that allow the seed to begin growing into a newseedling.
An agricultural byproduct consisting of the dry stalks ofcereal plants after thegrain andchaff have been removed. Straw has numerous different uses, including asmulch,biofuel, bedding andfodder for livestock, and construction material.
Afield residue consisting of the portion of a plant remaining in the ground afterharvesting is complete, usually the roots below the surface and an attached portion of the stem or stalk extending upright above the surface.[2]
The practice of leaving thestubble orcrop residue essentially in place on a plot of harvested cropland as amulch or surface cover during afallow period. Stubble-mulching can preventsoil erosion and conserve soil moisture.[35]
The price paid by a logging business to a landowner for the right to harvesttimber from their land, usually determined by a rate applied to the number of trees or the volume (in cubic metres orboard-feet) or mass (in tons) of wood harvested.
The practice of deliveringirrigation water through ditches or pipelines directly into porous underground spaces within acrop'srooting depth; more broadly, any method of supplying water to plants from underneath the soil surface, including those grown in pots and containers, as opposed to supplying it at the surface or from above.[14]
Agricultural production that is practiced in order to meet the needs of the farmer or producer, as opposed to that practiced in order to generate profit by selling the agricultural products to consumers. Subsistence agriculture usually refers to farmers growingvarious food crops strictly for use by themselves and their families, typically onsmallholdings, with the output of the farm targeted principally at fulfilling basic survival needs and local requirements, and generally implies small amounts ofinputs, use of crude or traditional farming tools, reliance on unskilled labor (often family members), lowyields, and little or nosurplus. It primarily occurs in the developing world, though most modern subsistence farmers also participate in trade to some degree.
Atractor-mounted farm implement used fortilling soil at depths much below the levels normally worked bymouldboardploughs,disc harrows, orrototillers. While most such tools break up and turn over surface soil to a depth of 15–20 centimetres (6–8 in), subsoilers can often extend the action to as deep as 75 centimetres (30 in). They typically consist of three or more heavy, curved shanks fitted with replaceable points and sometimes with horizontal wings, which are used to lift and shatter thehardpan that builds up in deeper layers due tosoil compaction.
To supply or take milk from the breast or udder of an animal,[14] used especially to describe the nourishment of newborn mammals includingswine andcattle.
suckling
An infant or young animal thatsuckles milk for most or all of its nourishment; one that has not yet beenweaned.[14]
The practice of deliberately not producing crops from a particular field or area of cropland (fallowing) during the summer, or during the regulargrowing season. The term may also refer to the unused land itself. Intensive cultivation depletes soils of moisture and nutrients and disrupts many of the natural ecological processes that would ordinarily restore them, which are typically most active during the summer. Fallowing fields in the summer thus maximizes the opportunity for impoverished soils to recover by allowing these processes to continue instead of interrupting them with another season of cultivation. It is a common technique indryland farming.
summer range
Alsosummer pasture.
Land orpasture reserved forgrazing during the warmer months (i.e. spring and summer), when wild or cultivatedforage is abundant and can satisfy all or nearly all of an animal's feed requirements, such that the need to supplyfodder for sustenance is greatly reduced and thus feed costs are cheaper. More generally, the term may describe the areas occupied or frequented during the warm season by open-rangelivestock or wild animals which exhibit seasonal migration patterns, moving between higher, cooler elevations in the summer and lower, warmer elevations in the winter.[57] Contrastwinter range.
sun-cured
Alsosun-dried.
(of a food) Having been dried by a process in which the freshly harvestedproduce (e.g. tomatoes) is exposed to direct sunlight in open air, often for multiple days, causing most of the water of thefresh weight to be lost by evaporation.[32]
Permanent damage to thebark covering tree trunks and branches, often in the form of conspicuous cracks and fissures, caused by an abrupt change from relatively high daytime temperatures to freezing conditions at night, usually during the winter in warm temperate or subtropical climates. These conditions may compromise the health of trees growing in orchards, and may damage flowers and fruits as well.
A legislated minimum price for a particular commodity, maintained through a variety of mechanisms, such as minimum import prices,nonrecourse loans, and purchase programs.[32]
The drainage of a natural swamp or wetland in order to make the landarable for the cultivation of agricultural crops, or to render it usable for any other purpose.[2]
A machine that cutshay or smallgrain crops and forms them intowindrows, with the goal of decreasing the time required fordrying the crop to a moisture content suitable for harvesting and storage. Asickle bar ormower cuts the stems of the crop, and a reel helps the cut stems fall neatly onto a conveyor, which then deposits them into a windrow with all stems oriented in the same direction. The mown strip left behind is called theswathe.
sweetening
Thesowing of additional seed of the same crop into a previously sown field without disrupting the original planting, in order to supplement thinly planted areas which did not or are not expected togerminate at the same density as the rest of the field. Even when the original seed is uniformly sown, it may fail to establish at the expected density due to low viability or adverse weather conditions such as a late frost.[2]
Any member of several species of omnivorous mammals of the familySuidae, having cloven hooves, flat snouts, and thickhides covered with sparse, coarse hair; the term may be applied to such animals both collectively and individually. Adult males are calledboars and adult females are calledsows. Domestic swine are commonly raised for their meat, known aspork, and wild swine are often hunted.[14]
1. Infurrow andborder irrigation, water that drains from the lower end of the furrows, havingrun off instead of penetrating the soil. It is sometimes subsequently usable for the irrigation of lower-lying land.[14]
2. The water immediately downstream of a dam, spillway, bridge, culvert, or any other hydraulic structure, or the water that passes through atailrace.[14]
Fatrendered from the tissue of slaughteredcattle,sheep, or otherlivestock to be used in the manufacture of candles, soap, or any of a variety of other products.[2]
Atractor-drawn machine that uses rapidly movingpitchfork-like tines to aerate or "wuffle" freshly cuthay on the ground in a process known astedding, typically prior towindrowing. Use of a tedder allows the hay to dry more quickly, which can result in improved aroma and color.[58]
The spreading of material across an agricultural field, especiallymanure to serve as a fertilizer, or certain crops (e.g.hay andflax) to help them dry on the ground before collecting them. Traditionally tedding was done manually with tools such aspitchforks, but in modern practice it is often done by a mechanizedmanure spreader orhay tedder.
One of several steps in thedry milling and fractionation of certaincereal crops such as wheat and maize, in which moisture is added to thegrain in order to aid the removal ofbran from the endosperm.[32]
A person who operates and resides onfarmland owned by a landlord. Tenant farming involves a contract between the landowner and the tenant farmer in which the landowner contributes his land and often a measure of operatingcapital and management in exchange for the tenant farmer's labor. The tenant farmer may also pay rent to the landowner, though the form and measures of payment and the rights the tenant has to the land vary widely with local custom.
An instrument used inirrigation management to measure the amount of moisture in cultivated soil and thereby provide an indicator of how much and how frequently to irrigate.[32]
A sloped plane such as a hillside that has been landscaped into a series of flat surfaces or platforms resembling steps, i.e. successively receding as one travels uphill, and following the lateral contours of the topography. Graduated terraces are commonly built to create level spaces for agriculture in hilly or mountainous terrain. The shaping of a natural landscape into terraces is known asterracing.
A hillside in China which has beenterraced for rice cultivation
The process of loosening and separating the edible part of agrain or other crop from thechaff to which it is attached, without removing thebran. In grain cultivation, threshing immediately followsreaping and precedeswinnowing.
A specially flattened outdoor or indoor surface of earth, stone, or wood, often circular and paved, against which grain was traditionallythreshed by trampling or stamping it into the ground with the feet of people or animals, and where it was subsequentlywinnowed as well. Mechanizedthreshing machines have since made threshing floors obsolete.
1. The preparation of agricultural soil by any of various types of mechanical agitation, whether human-powered, animal-powered, or mechanised, such as digging,hoeing,raking,ploughing, andharrowing. In this sense, it is also referred to astilling.
1. A stem or shoot which arises from the base or crown of agrass plant, especially any shoot that emerges after the initial parent shoot germinates from a seed.[59] Many grass species, includingcereals such as barley, produce multiple tillers which grow laterally from the same dense tuft in moist soils, a form of vegetative propagation known astillering.
The physical texture, structure, and general condition ofsoil with respect to its suitability for planting or growing acrop, as indicated by parameters such as moisture content, aeration,soil aggregate stability, rate of water infiltration, and drainage. Soil with good tilth has large pore spaces allowing air and water movement, yet is also capable of holding water and plant nutrients for substantial periods of time. The primary objective oftillage is to improve tilth by mechanical manipulation of the soil, with the goal of increasing cropyield;fertilization,irrigation, andsoil amendments can also positively impact tilth. When applied excessively, however, these practices may have the opposite effect, causing the soil to lose its structure and becomecompacted.
The practice of applyingfertilizers,manure,pesticides, or othersoil amendments to the surface of agricultural land (i.e. broadcasting it from above and without subsequently tilling it into the soil),[2] often directly onto a growing crop, and especially implyingaerial application fromaircraft. This is in contrast to applying amendmentson the side or individually to each plant via more precise methods.
topographical tetrazolium test
AlsoTTC assay ortetrazolium test.
A test ofseed viability in which ungerminated seeds are nicked and then soaked in an aqueous solution containingtriphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC), a chemical indicator which isreduced by the activity ofdehydrogenase enzymes in living tissues, changing their color from white to red, but remains unreacted in metabolically inactive or necrotic tissues. A seed embryo that stains red is assumed to be metabolically active and therefore likely to germinate. The TTC assay is used in agriculture for quick estimations of viability without having to wait for actual germination, which can often take days or weeks, but may also yield misleading or unreliable results in certain plant species.
The removal by mowing or cutting of the aerial parts of a plant, i.e. the uppermost parts of thecanopy, including the highest or most distal ends of shoots, stems, stalks, trunks, or branches, for any of a variety of reasons, especially in order to prevent the development of terminal reproductive structures such as flowers and fruits, with the ultimate aim of diverting the plant's resources to the growth of other structures such as roots and leaves, or of preventing unwanted dispersal of seeds.Cover crops are commonly topped to prevent their seeds from contaminating the soil they are covering. Topping is also done for health and aesthetic reasons. See alsopruning,coppicing andpollarding.
The uppermost layer of soil, nearest the surface, widely variable in depth but typically less dense and more pliable than layers below it, making it easy totill but also more susceptible to erosion. In many places topsoils will form naturally from a mixture of organic and inorganic material over time, but it may also be added to a ground surface or created byploughing.[2]
A type of heavy engineering vehicle designed specifically to deliver very hightractive effort ortorque at slow speeds for the purpose of hauling a trailer or machinery, especially one which provides the power and traction tomechanize agricultural tasks. Modern tractors serve a wide variety of different functions, with many types of agricultural implements able to be towed behind or mounted on them, such asploughs,harrows, andcultivators; tractors may also provide a source of electrical power if the implement is mechanized.
Anagricultural machine designed to automate the process oftransplanting small plants orseedlings from starter pots to a field, obviating the time and labor required for manual transplanting.
The process of moving a plant from one location to another, i.e. physically removing the whole plant, including its roots, from the substrate of the original location and then replanting it in the substrate of the new location. Seeds andplugs are often initially planted in starter pots in anursery and then transplanted to outdoor settings only after the young plants have become sufficiently established, as an alternative to simply sowing seeds outdoors from the beginning. Transplanting may also be done for other reasons, e.g. when movingcontainer-grown plants to larger pots as they grow in size. A machine that automates the action of transplanting is known as atransplanter. Many agricultural crops are relatively tolerant of being transplanted and are quick to re-establish themselves in new locations, while other species are susceptible to transplant shock, such that horticulturists must exercise great caution when moving them.
Any plant that is cultivated in order to attract the attention of agricultural pests, usually insects, and thereby distract them away from nearbycrops. In small farms or gardens, this practice can help save the primary crop from decimation by pests without the use ofpesticides.
A wild forest that is managed for timber production, or aplantation ornursery where trees are deliberately planted and cultivated for commercial sale, either for timber or as ornamental plants.
The practice of completely covering the lower trunk of a tree (commonly a sapling) or any other sensitive plant withstraw,crêpe paper,burlap, or plastic, generally in order to protect it from cold temperatures, wind,sunscald, or insects.[60]
A lattice or framework of interwoven or intersecting rods of wood, bamboo, metal, or plastic used to support or display climbing plants, especially trees and shrubs but also garden crops such as tomatoes.
trench silo
A long, deep trench dug in the ground, often in a hillside, and sometimes lined with wooden or concrete retaining walls to be used as an in-groundsilo for storingsilage. They are common in arid climates where the ground is well-drained.[2]
Afarm that grows vegetables or fruits and then ships the harvestedproduce, often in boxes hauled by trucks, to one or more markets for sale to consumers (as opposed to selling the produce at the farm itself, as with afarm stand).[2]
The fleshy, bag-likemammary gland found just in front of the hind legs of many female ungulate mammals, including cattle, sheep, goats, and horses.[22] The udder containsnipples orteats that secretemilk, which is used as a food source for nursing young and collected by humans in the process ofmilking.
The practice ofagriculture in urban environments (as opposed to rural areas, with which agriculture is more commonly associated), especially the cultivation of plants for food production but also inclusive ofanimal husbandry,aquaponics,beekeeping, or any other type of agriculture which has been adapted to an urban context. Urban areas present unique challenges for agriculture due to space limitations, difficult or inconsistent access to adequate fresh water, fertile soil, and sunlight, and exposure to urban pollutants. Urban agriculture is often practiced in the interest offood security,locavorism, and sustainable urban development, or simply as ahobby or for aesthetic reasons. Examples includecommunity gardens,vertical farming,windowfarming,rooftop gardening, andbuilding-integrated agriculture.
The unintentional diffusion of vapors from an area wherepesticides are applied (generally by large-scalefumigation methods) to adjacent areas, which can harm non-target crops or animals, as well as humans.[2]
A form ofmimicry in plants in which aweed or unwanted plant species evolves to share one or more characteristics with a domesticated plant species, often an agriculturalcrop, through many generations of unintentional selection caused by the practice ofremoving weeds. The deliberate removal of weeds from crop fieldsartificially selects against traits that distinguish the weed from the crop plant, because weeds that physically or chemically resemble the crop plant, or otherwise follow the same phenology or growth habit, are more likely to escape notice by the farmer, evade chemical or mechanical removal, and thereby survive to reproduce.
Acalf, especially of adairy breed, that is usually raised on milk only andslaughtered at less than four months old and less than 350 pounds (160 kg), to be sold asveal.[32]
A type ofcompost produced as a result of the decomposition processes performed by certain species of earthworms as they feed on decaying organic matter. The final product, typically a mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and worm castings, is popular as afertilizer andsoil amendment.
A hydrated magnesium-aluminum silicate mineral resembling mica which exfoliates upon heating to form a lightweight, incombustible, and highlyhygroscopic substance widely used inagriculture andhorticulture as asoil amendment, where it helps to aerate soil and retain water and nutrient ions, releasing them slowly over time. These properties make it a usefulgrowth medium for sowing seeds and propagatingcuttings, either alone, mixed withcompost, or just covering the surface.[61] It is commonly used in combination withperlite.[62]
The total volume of freshwater used in the production of a food or non-food agricultural product, represented figuratively and in most cases estimated rather than directly measured. Virtual water may include the water physically embodied in the product itself (e.g. inside a fruit) as well as any water used during production which does not ultimately become part of the product (e.g. all water consumed in the process of irrigation, whether actually uptaken by the crop or not).[7]
Any plant, especially a feralcrop plant or crop descendant, that grows in an agricultural field or garden unintentionally, rather than by deliberate planting by a farmer or gardener. Volunteers often grow from seeds that have been dispersed by the wind or animals or inadvertently mixed intocompost. Unlikeweeds, volunteers are not necessarily unwanted, and may even be encouraged to grow, especially if they show desirable characteristics that can be selected to produce newcultivars.
A self-propelled, two-wheeledtractor vehicle with a single axle, designed to pull and supply power to any of a variety ofagricultural implements which are mounted upon or towed behind it, including ploughs, seeders, cultivators, harvesters, or other trailers, with the operator either walking behind it or riding the implement being towed. These tractors, usually much smaller and cheaper than four-wheeled tractors, are best suited for small fields and relatively light-duty tasks.
warm-up ration
A ration ofgrain and/orsilage fed to free-rangecattle to prepare them for placement in afeedlot, where they will be fed on similar rations consisting entirely ofprocessed feed.[2]
The right of a landowner to make use of the banks, bed, or waters of a water source, e.g. a river, stream, pond, spring, or undergroundaquifer. The water source need not necessarily be contained within or border on the user's property, as human-made reservoirs, aqueducts, and other water distribution systems have made it possible to allocate water to places outside of the source's natural drainage basin. Water rights are of major significance for managingirrigation, especially in arid regions, though the legal principles regulating access and usage vary widely by jurisdiction.
The saturation of soil with water, such that water completely fills all available pores and voids in the soil, restricting air circulation in theroot zone and creating ananaerobic environment. Waterlogging occurs when water is added to a field faster than it canpercolate through the soil orrun off from the surface, either because of excessive precipitation orover-irrigation. In some contexts such asflood irrigation, crops are intentionally waterlogged, though total saturation is usually brief. Prolonged waterlogging is usually unintentional, as it deprives plant roots of aerobic respiration and can prevent properdrainage of mineral salts, causing an undesirable increase insoil salinity; with the exception of certain crops likerice grown inpaddy fields, most plants are highly intolerant of it. A variety of agricultural practices are designed to facilitate drainage and prevent waterlogging.
A flat area of grassland that is periodically flooded through the use of controlledirrigation in order to increaseagricultural productivity. The technique is practiced primarily in Europe.
The gradual introduction of an infant mammal to an adult diet while withdrawing the supply of its mother'smilk; the infant is considered fullyweaned, and may be called aweanling, when it is no longer nursed on any breast milk. More generally the term can also refer to the physical separation of acalf from its mother for any reason, usually by putting them in differentherds.
An animal which has recently beenweaned, especially ayoung horse, usually between six months and one year of age. The term is also sometimes used to refer to newly weanedcattle andswine.
Any plant considered undesirable in a particular context, growing where it conflicts with human preferences, needs, or goals. Plants considered weeds may include those that arehazardous to humans or animals; harbor pests or diseases; are difficult to control in managed environments; are aesthetically unappealing; or are simply a general nuisance, having negative characteristics that outweigh their positive ones. Such plants tend to reproduce quickly and produce large numbers of seeds, and often have biological characteristics that allow them to thrive in disturbed environments or that make them difficult to eradicate.[63]Weed control is of great importance in agriculture and horticulture, since weeds may compete with cultivated crops for soil, sunlight, water, nutrients, and other resources and cause significant losses in cropyields.
A form of pest control which attempts to stop or reduce the growth and proliferation ofweeds in areas where they are not wanted (such as in agricultural fields or gardens), generally with the aim of reducing their competition with desirable flora or fauna (such as domesticated crop plants or livestock) or, outside of agricultural contexts, of preventing non-native plant species from invading and damaging natural ecosystems by competing with native species. Methods of controlling existing weed populations includemanually or mechanically damaging or removing them, smothering them withmulch, deeplytilling orsolarizing the soil, burning them, or applyingpostemergent chemicalherbicides. Weed control may also encompass prophylactic measures intended to prevent weeds from invading and germinating in areas where they are not yet growing, such as applyingpreemergent herbicides or practicing long-term strategies such as periodicallyrotating crops orfallowing the land.
Any of a variety of hand-operated, towed, or power-driven agricultural implements used to pull, cut, dig, or otherwiseremoveundesirable plants from an area intended for cultivation.[32]
The destruction or removal ofweeds by manual or mechanical means, often with the use of implements such ashoes orcultivators, but also simply by manually pulling them from the ground; or, in the broadest sense, any type ofweed control applied to existing populations of weeds, including chemicalherbicides.
Amilling operation in which plant material containing seeds is steeped in water, with or withoutsulfur dioxide, in order to soften the seedkernels and separate the material into its various components.[16] The technique is commonly used to convert maize into products that can be used asanimal feed.
A byproduct of themilling ofwheat consisting of all components of the wheatkernel remaining after theflour portion is separated, generally a mixture of both coarse and fine particles including screenings,bran,germ,shorts,red dog, and offal from other mill streams. Sometimes these components are further sorted into their own separate fractions, though they are also commonly recycled into a single combined fraction representing approximately 25–30 percent of the original grain. Wheat middlings are inexpensive and rich in protein, lipids, digestible fiber, phosphorus, and many vitamins and minerals, making them a widely popularanimal feed.[64]
wigging
The shearing ofwool from around the eyes and face of a sheep.[5]
wild hay
Hay cut from wild or native grasses, as opposed totame hay, which is cut from cultivated crops.[2]
One or more rows of closely spaced trees or shrubs planted in such a way as to provide shelter from the wind to an adjacent agricultural field, thereby protecting the area from excessive cold andsoil erosion. Windbreaks commonly take the form ofhedgerows planted around the edges of fields on farms, but may also be made from artificial materials such as large canvas panels. Aside from decreasing wind speeds, they may also be designed to separate farms from motorways or to collectsnowdrifts that will provide water to dry farmland when the snow melts in the spring.
Amill powered by thewind, using large vanes called sails or blades to catch the movement of the air and convert it into rotational energy which drives aturbine. Traditionally, windmills were used specifically asgristmills to millgrain, but in modern usage the term may encompass many other wind-powered devices which are not used for milling.
A row of cut or mownhay or smallgrain crop that is allowed to dry in afield before beingbaled,combined, or rolled. Windrows may be built deliberately after cutting, or they may form automatically as a result of the method by which the crop is mown.
The process, performed either manually or mechanically, by which the economic fraction of a grain crop (i.e. thegrain) is separated from the undesirablechaff. Traditional manual winnowing involves throwing the unseparated mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, while the heavier grains fall back to the ground for recovery. In modern agriculture, winnowing is often entirely mechanized. It is the final of the three major steps of grainharvesting, followingreaping andthreshing.
winter range
Land orpasture reserved forgrazing during the colder months (i.e. fall and winter), whenforage is less abundant and thusfodder must often be supplied to animals to meet their feed requirements. More generally, the term may describe the areas occupied or frequented during the cold season bylivestock or wild animals that migrate seasonally between higher, cooler elevations in the summer and lower, warmer elevations in the winter.[57] Contrastsummer range.
The fiber produced byclipping and collecting hair from sheep or other mammals, including goats, rabbits, llamas, and alpacas. Animal wool is one of the major classes of fiber used in the textile industry.
A plant species, especially a non-native plant orweed, which has been unintentionally introduced to a particular place as a result of activities related to the manufacture ofwool products. This usually occurs when a seed, bur, or even a whole plant becomes entangled in the wool of a sheep or other wool-bearing animal and then survivesshearing, transportation of the shorn wool, and cleaning at a refinery, where impurities in the wool are removed and discarded such that intact plant propagules are able to germinate and establish themselves in new habitats. Wool aliens are commonly found near woollen mills or in fields or orchards where byproducts of the wool cleaning process have been repurposed assoil conditioners.
The practice of gardening or landscaping so as to reduce or eliminate the need for supplemental water fromirrigation. Xeriscaping requires the selection of plants whose natural requirements are appropriate to the local climate, with a particular emphasis onwater conservation, and focuses on designing and maintaining the land in such a way as to avoid losing water to evaporation andrunoff. See alsodryland farming.
The preparation of agricultural maps using data obtained from physical sensors (known asyield monitors) attached toagricultural machinery such ascombines ortractors, in combination with precise position information from satellite orGIS technologies, in order to visualize and study the spatial variation of variables such ascrop yield and moisture content across an agricultural field. These data are often compared with records of the application offertilizers,pesticides, andirrigation, allowing farmers to understand how particular combinations ofinputs influence the yield harvested from different parts of the same field and to develop strategies for increasing yields in future production cycles.[65] Yield mapping is a major component ofprecision agriculture.[2]
^Simmons, Christopher W.; Guo, Hongyun; Claypool, Joshua T.; Marshall, Megan N.; Perano, Kristen M.; Stapleton, James J.; VanderGheynst, Jean S. (May 2013). "Managing compost stability and amendment to soil to enhance soil heating during soil solarization".Waste Management.33 (5):1090–1096.Bibcode:2013WaMan..33.1090S.doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2013.01.015.PMID23422041.
^The Macquarie Dictionary. North Ryde: Macquarie Library. 1991.
^abcdefgManley, Will; Foot, Katharine; Davis, Andrew (2019).A Dictionary of Agriculture and Land Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN9780191744327.
^Sutherland, Mhairi A.; Tucker, Cassandra B. (15 December 2011). "The long and short of it: A review of tail docking in farm animals".Applied Animal Behaviour Science.135 (3):179–191.doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2011.10.015.
^"Doddie n., adj".Dictionaries of the Scots Language. Scottish Language Dictionaries Ltd. 2004.
^"dogie".The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. HarperCollins Publishers. 2022.
^Boller, E.F.; Avilla, J.; Joerg, E.; Malavolta, C.; Wijnands, F.G.; Esbjerg, P., eds. (2004)."Integrated Production: Principles and Technical Guidelines".IOBC/WPRS Bulletin.27 (2). International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants, West Palearctic Regional Section (IOBC/WPRS).
^Verma, Akhilesh K.; Umaraw, Pramila; Kumar, Pavan; Mehta, Nitin; Sazili, Awis Qurni (2022). "Processing of red meat carcasses".Postharvest and Postmortem Processing of Raw Food Materials:243–280.doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-818572-8.00002-4.ISBN978-0-12-818572-8.
^Alakukku, Laura (2012). Soil Compaction. In: Jakobsson, Christine: Ecosystem Health and Sustainable Agriculture 1: Sustainable Agriculture. Uppsala University. URL: www.balticuniv.uu.se/index.php/component/docman/doc_download/1256-chapter-28-soil-compaction- (accessed November 14th 2014).
^"Define the term weed".forages.oregonstate.edu. Oregon State University Forage Information System. June 2009.
^Blasi, Dale A.; Kuhl, Gerry L.; Drouillard, Jim S.; Reed, Carl L.; Trigo-Stockli, Dionisia M.; Behnke, Keith C.; Fairchild, Fred J. (August 1998)."Wheat Middlings Composition, Feeding Value, and Storage Guidelines"(PDF).Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service. Kansas State University.
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