| Global Combat Air Programme Programma Aereo da Combattimento Globale グローバル戦闘航空プログラム | |
|---|---|
_left_rear_top_view_in_GCAP_booth_of_JA2024_at_Tokyo_Big_Sight_October_19%2c_2024_02.jpg) GCAP concept model (delta wing type) left rear top view in GCAP booth of JA2024 at Tokyo Big Sight 2024 | |
| General information | |
| Other names | |
| Project for | Multirole fighter |
| National origin | United Kingdom Italy Japan |
| Manufacturer | BAE Systems Military Air & Information Leonardo S.p.A. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries |
| Designer | GCAP International Government Organisation (GIGO) Edgewing |
| Issued by | Royal Air Force Italian Air Force Japan Air Self-Defense Force |
| Prototypes | Mitsubishi X-2 flown April 2016 - March 2018 'Excalibur' Flight-test aircraft expected in 2026 Tempest Combat Air Demonstrator expected in 2027 |
| History | |
| Initiated | December 2022 |
| Expected | 2035 |
| Developed from | BAE Systems Tempest,Mitsubishi F-X |
| Predecessors | Eurofighter Typhoon,Mitsubishi F-2 |
TheGlobal Combat Air Programme (GCAP;Italian:Programma Aereo da Combattimento Globale; PACG;Japanese:グローバル戦闘航空プログラム,romanized: Gurōbaru Sentō Kōkū Puroguramu) is a multinational initiative led by theUnited Kingdom,Japan, andItaly to jointly develop asixth-generationstealth fighter commonly, but not formally referred to asTempest. The programme aims to replace theEurofighter Typhoon in service with theRoyal Air Force (RAF) andItalian Air Force, and theMitsubishi F-2 in service with theJapan Air Self-Defense Force.
On 9 December 2022, the governments of Japan, the United Kingdom, and Italy jointly announced that they would develop and deploy a common fighter jet, merging their previously separate sixth-generation projects: the United Kingdom-ledBAE Systems Tempest developed with Italy, and the JapaneseMitsubishi F-X.[1][2] This was formalised with a treaty signed in December 2023 in Japan.[3]
There are around 9,000 people working on the programme worldwide, with 1,000 and more suppliers from across the three partner nations. 600 such suppliers are based in the UK, and 400 are based in Italy and Japan.[4]
Under the current timeline, formal development is expected to begin in 2025, with a demonstrator aircraft to fly in 2027, and production aircraft to begin entering service from 2035.[5]
Japan, an island nation, has a disproportionately vastair defence identification zone given the size of its land territory, and it was expected that the country would have to protect it with a smaller fleet of fighters compared to those of its growing neighbours with much larger populations.[6] To address this issue, theMinistry of Defence decided in 2010 that Japan's next-generation fighter had to be highly information-based, intelligent, and capable of instantaneous response (i3 fighter). At the time, the fighter fleet of theJapan Air Self-Defence Force mainly consisted of theMitsubishi F-15J and theMitsubishi F-2. The former is a variant of theF-15, manufactured byMitsubishi Heavy Industries (hereafter referred to as Mitsubishi) under licence, while the latter was developed by Mitsubishi andLockheed Martin based on theF-16 in the 1990s. While the F-15J was set to be replaced by theF-35,[7] a replacement for the F-2 needed to be found before its planned retirement in the 2030s.
Following the USA's decision not to allow the export of theF-22 Raptor to any other country in 2007, Japan began looking for a domestic solution to field a new fighter aircraft to replace its Mitsubishi F-2 fleet. From the mid-2000s Japan began funding various research programmes involved in fighter design culminating in theMitsubishi X-2 Shinshin experimental aircraft which took flight on 22 April 2016. This research and the data collected from the X-2 programme would feed the development of Japan's main fighter effort, theMitsubishi F-X programme. TheIHI Corporation completed a prototype for theXF9 engine in 2018. In 2018, after more than a decade since America's refusal to export the F-22,Lockheed Martin proposed a potential Japan-America collaboration project to develop the F-2 successor based on the F-22 andF-35, but this was rejected by Japan.[8]
The2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR) committed the United Kingdom to operating a Royal Air Force fast-jet fleet comprisingEurofighter Typhoons, F-35s, and uncrewed combat and reconnaissance aircraft by the 2020s.[9] In preparation for the2015 SDSR, the UK launched a two-yearFuture Combat Air System (FCAS) programme to assess options for the post-2030 fleet, including newUncrewed Combat Air Vehicles (UCAVs), additional F-35 orders, life extension of Typhoon, or a new crewed fighter design.[10][11]
Following the 2010Lancaster House Treaties, the UK and France agreed to collaborate on future combat air technologies, including UCAVs intended to replace Typhoon andRafale aircraft in the 2030s.[10][12] In 2012, both governments and industry partners (BAE Systems andDassault Aviation) funded joint studies, leading to a £120 million FCAS Feasibility Phase contract in 2014. Drawing on the Dassault nEUROn and BAE Systems Taranis demonstrators, the study aimed to support a joint UCAV procurement in the 2030s and possible integration into future crewed platforms.[10][13]
The 2015 SDSR introduced the Future Combat Air System Technology Initiative (FCAS TI) which had three core strands for the development of combat air technologies: international projects (including the joint work with France); national projects; and an open mission system architecture project.[14] In 2016, the feasibility study led to a £1.54 billion prototype UCAV project.[15]
In 2017, France and Germany announced plans to develop a joint fighter to replace the Rafale and Typhoon, forming the EuropeanFCAS programme. This initially raised uncertainty over the UK–France UCAV effort, though in early 2018 both governments confirmed its continuation; France intended to pursue a crewed platform with Germany and an uncrewed demonstrator with the UK.[14][16]
At the 2018Farnborough Airshow, a mock-up of 'Tempest' was revealed, a BAE Systems led sixth-generation fighter programme that would be developed to replace the RAF's Typhoons in the mid-to-late 2030s.[17][18] Developed by “Team Tempest” (BAE Systems,Rolls-Royce,Leonardo UK,MBDA UK, and the Ministry of Defence), the programme was accompanied by a new Combat Air Strategy highlighting technological competitiveness and industrial sovereignty. In 2016, the UK combat air sector generated £6.5 billion annually and supported 46,000 jobs.[19][20]
In February 2019, the FCAS UCAV demonstration programme between the UK and France had seemingly been downgraded to a technology demonstration and study effort, as France deepened its collaboration with Germany.[21]
On 19 July 2019, Sweden signed aMemorandum of understanding (MoU) with the UK to work together to develop concepts and understanding for both nations' FCAS for the future of air combat platforms,[22] and Italy joined the Tempest programme in September 2019.[23][24] In 2020, Sweden and the UK expanded their partnership through SAAB's £50 million investment in a UK centre of excellence, though Sweden did not formally join the Tempest project.[25] The UK, Italy, and Sweden signed a trilateral FCAS MoU in December 2021.[26]
A number of new technologies were being explored for Tempest, including:[27][28]
Much of the technology envisioned for use on Tempest would initially be fielded on two distinct testbed platforms. The first is 'Excalibur', aBoeing 757-200 modified by British firm 2Excel in conjunction with Leonardo UK to serve as a flight test aircraft to de-risk and validate the technologies being examined for use on the fighter including the aerodynamics of the fighter's nose section and testing the aircraft's sensor suite.[29][30] The second would be a crewedsupersonic demonstrator aircraft announced in 2022 and expected to take flight around 2027, which would test, among other technologies, the integration of stealth compatible features.[31]
It was envisaged that the programme would agree to funding and manufacturing arrangements by 2025 with an expected in-service date for the aircraft in 2035.[27]
Discussions for both parties combining their respective fighter development efforts as a means of reducing their overall development costs began as early as 2017.[32][33][34] In December 2021, the first results of this endeavour appeared when the UK and Japan announced they would jointly cooperate to produce a demonstrator for a new fighter engine as well as the signing of a memorandum of cooperation to explore future air combat technologies together.[35] On 15 February 2022, a further agreement was reached between both nations to jointly develop sensor capabilities for their respective fighters known as the 'Japan and Great Britain Universal Advanced RF (radio-frequency) system' or 'JAGUAR'.[36]
In July 2022,Reuters reported from anonymous sources within both programmes that both parties were close to a deal that would combine both Tempest and F-X into a single joint programme.[37] On 9 December 2022, this was proven correct when it was officially announced by British Prime MinisterRishi Sunak that the Tempest and F-X programmes would merge into a single endeavour to procure a common multi-role fighter now called the "Global Combat Air Programme" (GCAP).[38][39][2] The resulting aircraft would also be expected to be available for export to further reduce the per-unit costs.[40]
The programme is envisaged as an equal partnership between the member nations. In the UK,BAE Systems will act as prime contractor and handle the airframe,Rolls-Royce the engines,Leonardo's UK division the electronics, andMBDA UK the weapons. In Japan,Mitsubishi Heavy Industries will act as prime contractor, withIHI Corporation handling the engines, andMitsubishi Electric handling the electronics. In Italy,Leonardo S.p.A. will be prime contractor, withAvio Aero working on the engines, andMBDA Italy will also work on missile development.[41] By around 2024, detailed development and cost sharing for each company would be clarified, production to begin around 2030, and the first aircraft to be deployed in 2035.[41]
In September 2023, the UK, Italy, and Japan signed a trilateral collaboration agreement to outline long-term working arrangements and capability requirements for GCAP.[42] In December 2023, an international treaty was signed in Tokyo, formally launching the joint development of the future fighter aircraft.[43] The treaty confirmed that both the programme's governmental headquarters and industrial hub would be based in the UK, with Japan providing the first CEO and Italy the first business leader.[44][45] It also established the GCAP International Government Organisation (GIGO), which would oversee the aircraft's development once ratified by each country's political bodies. The Japanese Ministry of Defence stated that technical officials would be dispatched to support GIGO, and that secure facilities and daily coordination between governments and industries would underpin the development process.[46]
On 6 March 2024, Prime MinisterFumio Kishida announced that further defence export reforms were needed to reduce production costs, strengthen Japan's security posture, and enhance its reliability as an international defence partner.[47] Later that month, the government approved revisions to its strict export rules, permitting the transfer of defence equipment, including the jointly developed fighter, to partner nations that have signed defence cooperation agreements and are not involved in active conflicts.[48][49]Komeito, the junior coalition partner, expressed reservations in line with its pacifist principles.[50] In June 2024, Japan'sNational Diet ratified the treaty, formally establishing GIGO.[50][51]
Japan's 2024 Defence White Paper explained that these reforms were necessary to align with the UK and Italy, both of which viewed exports of the finished aircraft as essential for cost reduction and international influence. To support this, Japan revised its Three Principles on Transfer of Defence Equipment and Technology and their Implementation Guidelines, introducing three specific restrictions governing GCAP exports:[46]
The UK ratified the GCAP convention in October 2024, followed by Italy in November 2024.[52][53] On 15 January 2025, the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced that the GIGO would be headquartered inReading and led by its first Chief Executive, Oka Masami.[54]
On 13 December 2024, the three national industrial partners for the GCAP announced the formation of a business joint venture that will be accountable for the design, development, and delivery of the aircraft by the mid-2030s and throughout its expected service life beyond 2070. BAE Systems, Japan Aircraft Industrial Enhancement Co Ltd (JAIEC), and Leonardo will each hold a 33.3% stake in the venture. The agreement will now go for approval to the national regulatory authorities before it is formally established in mid-2025; the company will be headquartered in the UK alongside the GIGO.[55][56]
In December 2024, Leonardo stated that it had already signed GCAP-related R&D contracts worth €100 million with subcontractors in Italy, whilst the Italian MoD had earmarked €8.8 billion to the programme. Leonardo outlined that it would be the leader in four domains for the aircraft's development: flight system integration, weapons integration, training integration, and two activities under the domain of mission system: the weapons effect management system and the flight control system. Leonardo emphasised a new way of collaborating on the development of all key activities linked to sixth-generation aspects, using an innovative model that will see all three national entities working together but with the leading nation in that domain coordinating the different areas, with clusters of engineers from all three nations working together across different sites. Meanwhile, more conventional elements of the aircraft will be assigned to single nations for development.[57]
The Joint Venture will have four main sites one in each nation, including the headquarters in the United Kingdom. The main Italian site will be Torino Caselle already the home of the Eurofighter assembly line, but the work will be spread across Leonardo sites inRome,Pomezia,Florence andNerviano for electronics and avionics. Of the 9000 people working on GCAP at the current stage, 3000 are Italian. Leonardo highlighted the importance ofcyber-security and cyber-engineers to the programme, both for aircraft itself, but also for the facilities developing the aircraft.[57]
On 20 June 2025, the Joint Venture was officially named Edgewing.[58]
In June 2023, the UK's industrial partners shared progress on developing the 2027 technological demonstrator already contracted under the Tempest programme. Initial flight trials flown on simulators at BAE's facility inWarton had by this time conducted 150 hours of simulated flight-time, with BAE also claiming that through the use of auto-coding, critical system software used and tested in the simulator had been created in a matter of days rather than weeks. Meanwhile, Rolls Royce announced that it had used aEJ200 engine to test a new S-shaped stealth intake/duct developed by BAE. Finally,Martin Baker and BAE had conducted initialejector-seat trials using a mock-up cockpit.[59][60]
In July 2023, BAE Systems outlined that a total of 60 technology demonstration projects were underway. In reference to the actual demonstrator aircraft, BAE emphasised the need to prove the stealth characteristics and weapon bay operation, but also highlighted that BAE was still open to either a twin or single engine design.[61]
On 24 July 2024, following the passing of a critical design review, BAE Systems had reportedly already begun manufacturing and assembling of the flyable technology demonstrator. Most of the aircraft's parts will be produced in the UK with the involvement of over 100 suppliers. The manufacturing process had utilised ahot isostatic press to reduce material waste and lead times associated with forgings, as well asadditive manufacturing. The demonstrator is expected to feature an integrated weapons bay, the first for a British-made aircraft since theBlackburn Buccaneer, with MBDA UK assisting with weapons integration. Meanwhile, Rolls-Royce will be providing two EJ200 engines donated by the Ministry of Defence to power the demonstrator. The aircraft will also be the first aircraft to utilise the Pyramid avionic design architecture. First disclosed by the Ministry of Defence in October 2021, Pyramid is a reusable open-system mission architecture designed to make avionic upgrades to aircraft simpler, cheaper, and quicker by focusing on a software-based approach with inbuilt compatibility with other platforms running the Pyramid Reference Architecture.[62][63] Additionally, simulated test-flight time of the demonstrator were now reportedly totalling 215 hours. Whilst the development of this technology demonstrator is a UK sovereign effort, the lessons learned will feed into GCAP much like with Japan's Mitsubishi X-2 years earlier. Dimensions for the technology demonstrator have not been revealed but, due to the size of its engine ducts publicly showcased by BAE Systems, it is estimated the aircraft is likely a third larger than a Eurofighter Typhoon.[64][65]
On July 14, 2023, the RAF awarded Leonardo UK and 2Excel a £115 million contract to enable the Excalibur Flight Test Aircraft (FTA) to transition into second phase development. This would see the purchase of a second Boeing 757 that would be modified into Excalibur, building upon the analysis conducted from the deconstruction of the first 757 airframe between 2021 and 2022. Excalibur is expected to commence testing in 2026.[66]
On 9 December 2024, it was announced that the Excalibur FTA had successfully completed its first phase of modification and flight testing with the aircraft having been fitted with side and belly pods for hosting systems such as the Integrated Sensors, Non-Kinetic Effects (ISANKE) and Integrated Communications Systems (ICS), developed by Leonardo UK and its international partners. Excalibur is also expected to be fitted with a fighter jet-style nose cone to integrate radar demonstrators.[67]
In September 2025, it was announced that both Italy and Japan will also produce their own domestic flight test aircraft.[68] Italy will modify aGulfstream business jet without afly-by-wire system to avoid interference with the prototype electronics. Mitsubishi may convert a larger transport aircraft such as theKawasaki C-2 as a flying testbed.[69]
The initial concept art for the aircraft shown following GCAP's announcement in 2022 was of a large, twin-engine,low-observable aircraft with a uniquemodified cranked delta-wing configuration. However, on 22 July 2024, at theFarnborough Airshow, an updated airframe concept design was unveiled alongside the aircraft's first 1:1 scale model. The new model showed a redesigned wing shape to that of a true delta and increase in wing size indicative of an emphasis on increased fuel capacity (range), weapon capacity, and speed.[70][71][72] Whilst there has yet to be official dimensional characteristics released for the fighter,Janes' Gareth Jennings in attendance of the unveiling talking of the scale model drew comparison to the 19 metre wingspan of theF-111 Aardvark.[73] GCAP officials stressed that this was still a concept model and therefore not representative of the finished design.[74] Officials also highlighted that tens of thousands of people could be involved with GCAP over the programme's decades-long life and shared their belief that full-rate production for the aircraft would stretch beyond 2060. Herman Claesen of BAE Systems indicated that the current design philosophy for the aircraft is that it is not intended to have any designatedfull-operational capability (FOC) dates. Claesen explained that aircraft's open-architecture design simplifies upgrades throughout the aircraft's service life compared to legacy air systems.[74]
On 5 February 2025, the UK revealed the Tornado 2 Tempest project (T2T), which saw components from the RAF's since retiredTornado aircraft fleet recycled into new complex components which could be used for the future fighter. The initiative was formed to examine whether strategic materials still present in surplus MoD assets such as high quality steel, aluminium and titanium could be atomised into powders, known as “feedstock”, for additive manufacturing to make new parts. The potential benefit being to increase the accessibility of critical and high-value metals by reusing what is already present in existing stockpiles that could now be remade in lighter, stronger, and long lasting forms than what could be previously possible with traditional forging methods. T2T demonstrated the cleaning and atomising of titanium from a Tornado's jet engine compressor blades from a low-pressure air compressor which was then used to 3D print new compressor blades and nose cone which Roll-Royce installed into an Orpheus test engine which then successfully ran at test-conditions (Orpheus being a Roll-Royce programme exploring new design, development, and manufacturing concepts for defence-related propulsion systems).[75][76] T2T also demonstrated aDigital Product Passport system, capturing and recording material provenance and lifecycle data which potentially enables more informed decisions around material allocation and protect against the use of counterfeit materials.[77]
On 12 March 2025, It was reported that Leonardo expects that 350 aircraft will be ordered by 2035. For comparison, combining the Typhoon and F-2 fleets of Italy, the UK, and Japan yields a minimum requirement for 290 airframes from the three core partner nations.[78][79]
On 1 April 2025, during an interview an MoD representative detailed some expected capabilities of the aircraft including carrying "roughly double anF-35A's [weapon] payload", carrying sufficient sensor capability to independently form akill-chain, and carrying the necessary computing power for controlling thesystem of systems (i.e. low-cost drones) whilst deep inside hostile territory where connections to traditional support assets like theE-7 Wedgetail may be restricted, all whilst remaining survivable. In regards to the aircraft's range, it may be able to cross theAtlantic on internal fuel unlike the Typhoon which requiresrefuelling three or four times.[80]
As of 2024,[update] GCAP is solely focused on the development of a sixth generation fighter aircraft, with the partner nations not having publicly stated their intention to cooperate on wider air combat developments under the system of systems approach taken by similar programmes like the European FCAS. As such, the development of wider assets, namely uncrewed systems has so far been a sovereign effort for each nation (e.g. UK'sLANCA programme).
In mid-March 2024, during a press briefing, Leonardo's CEO Roberto Cingolani criticised the UK for lack of transparency regarding the details for the procurement of the wider System of systems for GCAP that the crewed fighter component would contribute to and that there was still uncertainty regarding the manufacturing and development responsibilities of the various partner companies.[81]
In July 2024, during the Farnborough Airshow,Airbus had reportedly suggested that itsWingman Unmanned Adjunct (WUA) could be developed for GCAP with help from the programme's industrial partners. Airbus also stressed that this would not conflict with its existing efforts as a lead industrial partner for FCAS as the WUA is an entirely separate and self-funded effort.[82]
During Farnborough Airshow 2024, Rolls-Royce stated that it was progressing with the full-scale ground-based engine demonstrator for the fighter. Developed in concert with Italy's Avio Aero and Japan'sIHI Corporation, the demonstrator is designed to initially test technologies developed by the three companies for compatibility, as well as common design tools, design processes, and audit processes for the production engine. In the future, the demonstrator is expected to serve as a test-bed for upgrades to the production-model power and propulsion system of the fighter.[83]
On 9 September 2025, Rolls-Royce, Avio Aero, and IHI signed an evolved collaboration agreement allowing them to engage directly with Edgewing, cementing them as the international consortium for developing the power and propulsion system of the fighter. The associated press release also detailed the successful test of a new engine combustor design.[84]
On 9 September 2025, Japan's Mitsubishi Electric, Italy's ELT Group as well as Leonardo and Leonardo UK, formed the GCAP Electronics Evolution (G2E) consortium in preparation for a contract award by Edgewing to deliver the advanced sensing and communication system known as Integrated Sensing and Non-Kinetic Effects & Integrated Communications Systems (ISANKE & ICS), as well as its associated Through-Life Support Service (TLSS). G2E will be based in Reading, UK close to the GIGO.[85][86] It is believed that the UK and Japanese firms will lead with radar development, Italy withInfrared Search and Track systems, and Japan onsatellite communications.[86]
Australia – in December 2024, it was reported that the United Kingdom was approaching Australia for involvement in the programme.[57] On 27 March 2025, it was confirmed that an informational briefing from the GCAP consortium to officials of theRoyal Australian Air Force (RAAF) occurred during theAvalonAustralian International Airshow. However, Air Vice-Marshal Nicholas Hogan, head of air force capability for the RAAF said that whilst GCAP was exciting, there were still too many unknowns at this stage to present options to the Government regarding the aircraft.[87][88]
Canada - In December 2025,Politico reported that Canada was examining GCAP as a possible follow-on to its procurement of the F-35A according to the outgoing High Commissioner to London.[89]
Germany – In November 2023,The Times reported that Germany was considering abandoning the €100 billion FCAS programme with France and Spain in favour of joining GCAP, amid ongoing disputes over intellectual property, industrial participation, and broader defence tensions, including Germany's F-35A procurement. Some analysts suggested this may have been a negotiating tactic to gain concessions from France and Spain, while others questioned whether Germany could secure an equivalent role within GCAP.[90][91][92] In September 2025,Politico reported that Dassault's push for an 80% workshare on the Next Generation Weapon System reignited tensions in Berlin, which had previously agreed to an equal split with France and Spain. These disagreements prompted Germany to explore alternatives, including replacing France with Sweden or the UK, or pursuing the programme with Spain alone, though continuing with France remained the preferred option if workshare issues could be resolved.[93][94]
Portugal – in July 2025, Portugal's Minister of National Defence said that the country would look to join either GCAP or FCAS as an observer under wider modernisation plans for thePortuguese Air Force.[95]
Saudi Arabia – In August 2023, theFinancial Times reported that Saudi Arabia was seeking to join GCAP. While the UK and Italy were open to the idea, Japan opposed it, citing concerns over export policy, programme timelines, technology security, and Saudi Arabia's limited technical contribution.[96][97] At the February 2024 World Defence Show, Saudi officials reiterated their interest, emphasising that participation would depend on meaningful local industrial involvement, in line with national goals to reinvest 50% of defence spending domestically by 2030.[98] During the 2024 G20 Summit, Italy, the UK and Japan discussed potential Saudi participation, focusing on cost-sharing and technology transfer. Italian officials later indicated that Saudi Arabia was likely to join.[99] In February 2025, Leonardo's co-director general stated that Saudi involvement could be strengthened by building local aerospace capability, including joint work on helicopters or Typhoon jets, and establishing component production to prepare for a future role in GCAP.[100]
Sweden – In December 2022, shortly after GCAP was announced, Japan and Sweden signed a defence technology transfer agreement, prompting speculation that Sweden might join the programme to replace its Saab JAS 39 Gripen, given its earlier cooperation with the UK and Italy on FCAS.[101] At the International Fighter Conference in December 2023, Swedish officials stated that a decision on a future fighter would not be made until 2031, following national studies and planning. They also confirmed that Sweden had previously withdrawn from discussions with the UK and Italy, without providing reasons. While future participation in GCAP was not ruled out, delaying a decision risked reducing Sweden's influence over the programme's development.[102][103][104]
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