Gil Vicente | |
|---|---|
.jpg) Statue atop the pediment of D. Maria II National Theatre | |
| Born | c. 1465 |
| Died | 1536 (aged 70–71) |
| Occupation | Playwright,goldsmith (disputed) |
| Alma mater | University of Salamanca (assumed) |
| Subject | Religion,satires |
| Literary movement | Renaissance humanism Portuguese Renaissance |
| Notable works | A Trilogia das Barcas,Farsa de Inês Pereira,Monólogo do Vaqueiro |
Gil Vicente (Portuguese:[ˈʒilviˈsẽtɨ]; c. 1465 – c. 1536), calledthe Trobadour, was a Portuguese playwright and poet who acted in and directed his own plays. Considered the chief dramatist of Portugal he is sometimes called the "PortuguesePlautus," often referred to as the "Father of Portuguese drama" and as one of Western literature's greatest playwrights. Also noted as alyric poet, Vicente worked in Spanish as much as he worked in Portuguese and is thus, withJuan del Encina, considered joint-father of Spanish drama.
Vicente was attached to the courts of the Portuguese kingsManuel I andJohn III. He rose to prominence as a playwright largely on account of the influence ofQueen DowagerLeonor, who noticed him as he participated in court dramas and subsequently commissioned him to write his first theatrical work.
He may also have been identical to an accomplishedgoldsmith of the same name at the court ofÉvora; the goldsmith is mentioned in royal documents from 1509 to 1517 and worked for the widow ofKing John II,Dona Leonor. He was the creator of the famousBelém Monstrance, and master ofrhetoric ofKing Manuel I.
His plays and poetry, written in both Portuguese and Spanish, were a reflection of the changing times during the transition fromMiddle Ages toRenaissance and created a balance between the former time of rigidmores andhierarchicalsocial structure and the new society in which this order was undermined.
While many of Vicente's works were composed to celebratereligious and national festivals or to commemorate events in the life of the royal family, others draw uponpopular culture to entertain, and often to critique, Portuguese society of his day.
Though some of his works were later suppressed by thePortuguese Inquisition, causing his fame to wane, he is now recognised as one of the principal figures of thePortuguese Renaissance.[1]
The year 1465, the date proposed by Queirós Veloso, is the commonly accepted year of Vicente's birth. However, Braamcamp Freire proposes the year 1460, while de Brito Rebelo proposes between 1470 and 1475. Vicente's own works indicate contradictory dates. TheVelho da Horta ("Old Man of the [Vegetable] Garden"), theFloresta de Enganos ("Forest of Mistakes"), and theAuto da Festa ("Act of the Party") indicate 1452, 1470, and before 1467, respectively. Since 1965, when official festivities commemorating the 500th birthday of the writer were held, the date of 1465 has been almost universally accepted.
Though Frei Pedro de Poiares conjecturedBarcelos was Vicente's birthplace, evidence for this is scarce. Despite this, the people of Barcelos honored the playwright by namingtheir own football club after him. Pires de Lima, on the other hand, proposedGuimarães, which better accounts for Vicente's identification as ajeweller. The people of Guimarães have embraced this theory; a municipal school inUrgezes is named after the playwright. There are some stories about Gil Vicente's father, that he was from this parish in Guimarães, so people believe that Gil Vicente had lived here too. Another conjecture places his birthplace atLisbon. TheBeira region is also a candidate because of various references to it in his plays, more exactly the location ofGuimarães de Tavares, that has been mistaken withGuimarães.
Vicente married his first wife Branca Bezerra in 1490.[2] The couple had two sons.[3] Following Bezerra's death in 1514, Vicente married Melícia Rodrigues in 1517. He had three children with Rodrigues:Paula (bornc. 1519), Luis (bornc. 1520), and Valeria (bornc. 1530).[3] Luis organized and published a compilation of Gil Vicente's work in 1562.[4]
It is well known the presence of the playwright inSantarém, on 26 January, during the1531 Lisbon Earthquake, where rumors quickly spread, apparently encouraged by the friars ofSantarém, that the disaster was divine punishment (Latin: "Ira Dei"- Wrath of God) and that theJewish community was to blame. Faced with social instability in the city, Gil Vicente, reportedly, personally defused the situation while scolding the friars for their fear-mongering in a powerfully written letter toKing John III, and possibly averting a massacre of Jews andrecent converts to Christianity.[5]
Vicente's last work is dated to 1536,[6] and he was dead by 1540.[7] The precise year of his death is unknown, and the location is variously given asÉvora orTorres Vedras.[6][8]
It is assumed that Vicente studied inSalamanca. Though he initially studied law, he soon abandoned it for literature.[9]
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In 1493, he was acting as master ofrhetoric to theDuke of Beja, afterwardsKing Manuel, a post which gave him admission to the court.[10] His first known work,O Monólogo do vaqueiro ("Monologue of the Cowherd"), was written in Spanish and acted in the rooms ofMaria of Aragon, wife of King Manuel, to celebrate the birth of Prince John (laterJohn III of Portugal). The first performance, recited by the playwright himself, took place on the night of 8 June 1502, in the presence of the king; the queen;Leonor of Viseu, former Queen of Portugal and widow ofJohn II; andBeatriz of Portugal, mother of the King.
O Monólogo do vaqueiro contains several elements clearly inspired by theAdoration of the Shepherds which takes place in accounts ofChrist's birth. Its staging included offerings of simple and rustic gifts, such as cheese, to the future king, from whom great achievements were expected.
Though Leonor asked him to give an encore performance of the play at theChristmasmatins, Vicente decided to write a new play for the occasion, theAuto Pastoril Castelhano ("Castilian Pastoral Act"). The court, pleased again, required a further diversion forTwelfth Night, whereupon he produced theAuto of the Wise Kings.[10] Because of the influence of Queen Leonor, who would become his greatest patron in the years to come, Gil Vicente realized that his talent would allow him to do much more than simply adapt his first work for similar occasions.
Vicente, who was in charge of organizing events in the palace, also directed the commemoration in honour ofEleanor of Spain, the third wife of Manuel I, in 1520. In 1521, he began servingJohn III of Portugal, and soon achieved the social status necessary tosatirize theclergy andnobility with impunity. His popularity even enabled him to contradict the opinions of the king, as he did in a 1531 letter defending theNew Christians.
For thirty years he entertained the courts, accompanying them as they moved from place to place, and providing by his autos a distraction in times of calamity, and in times of rejoicing giving expression to the feelings of the people. Though himself both actor and author, Gil Vicente had no regular company of players, but it is probable that he easily found students and court servants willing to get up a part for a small fee, especially as the plays would not ordinarily run for more than one night.[10]
Many works about Gil Vicente associate him with a goldsmith of the same name at the court ofÉvora;[11] technical terms used by the playwright lend credibility to this identification.
In 1881,Camilo Castelo Branco wrote the letter "Gil Vicente, Embargos à fantasia do Sr.Teófilo Braga" ("Gil Vicente, Refutations of the Opinion of Mr. Teófilo Braga"), which argued that Gil Vicente the writer and Gil Vicente the goldsmith were two different people. Teófilo Braga, who initially believed them to be the same man, later adopted a different opinion after reading a study by Sanches de Baena which showed the differentgenealogy of two individuals named Gil Vicente. However, Brito Rebelo demonstrated the historical inconsistency of these two genealogies by the use of documents from thePortuguese national archive.
Between 1503 and 1506, Vicente the goldsmith crafted the famousBelém Monstrance for theJerónimos Monastery using gold brought back from East Africa following Vasco da Gama's second voyage to India.[12] The monstrance features a ceremonial canopy framed by two high pinnacled counterforts, resembling the portal of the Church of Belém.[13]
Three years later, he became overseer of thepatrimonies of theConvento de Cristo inTomar, Nossa Senhora de Belém, and the Hospital de Todos-os-Santos in Lisbon. In 1511, he was nominatedvassal of the King, and a year later he was the representative jeweller in the Casa dos Vinte e Quatro. In 1513, as master of the balance of the Casa da Moeda, the Portuguese nationalmint, Vicente the goldsmith was elected by the others masters to represent them in Lisbon.
Vicente's oeuvre spans the years between 1500 and 1536. Most of his plays were intended for performance atcourt, where he and the ladies and gentlemen of the court participated in their production. He wrote no fewer than forty-four pieces, ten of which are in Spanish, fourteen in Portuguese, and the remainder in mingled Portuguese and Spanish. His plays may be grouped into four main categories: acts, ordevotional plays;comediestragicomedies; andfarces.
Like Spain's classical dramas, his plays are often inverse form. In addition, they feature his ownmusical compositions and well as popular lyrics and melodies of the time.[9]
He was also a notedlyric poet in both Portuguese and Spanish,[11] as represented by several poems in theCancioneiro ofGarcia de Resende.[9] He wrote a number ofvilancetes andcantigas ("songs") which were influenced by a palatial style and the themes of thetroubadours.
Some of his works are profoundly religious, while other are particularly satirical, particularly when commenting upon what Vicente perceived as the corruption of the clergy and the superficial glory ofempire which concealed the increasingpoverty of Portugal's lower classes.[1]
Vicente's works were partially influenced by the Iberian popular and religious theatre that was already being done. Pastoral themes present in the writings ofJuan del Encina strongly influenced Vicente's early works and continued to inform his later, more sophisticated plays. Thehumanism ofErasmus and ofRenaissance Italy also impacted his work.[1]
Luís Vicente, his son, classified Vicente'ssacred plays as acts andmysteries and hissecular plays as farces, comedies, and tragicomedies. His plays may be further divided intopastoral acts, religiousallegories,biblical narratives,episodical farces, andnarrative acts. However, many of his works blend both secular and sacred elements; for example,Triologia das Barcas ("Trilogy of the Ships") contains both farcical and religious motifs.
Vicente is one of the most important satirical authors of the Portuguese language. His satires were severely critical, anticipatingJean-Baptiste de Santeul's later epigram (often mistakenly attributed toHorace orMolière),castigat ridendo mores ("[Comedy] criticises customs through humour"). He portrayed Portuguese society of the 16th century with perceptiveness and insight, using many characters inspired by Portuguese socialstereotypes of his time. In addition,rustic characters, such as sailors,gypsies, and peasants, are common, as are more fantastical characters such asfairies anddemons. Though he commonly referenced populardialects, Vicente maintained the lyricism of his words.
Positive aspects of Vicente's works include imagination, originality, and a proficiency in technical knowledge of theatre. Though spontaneous, sardonic, and emotive, his works maintain a directness and simplicity of dialogue which is lyrical without being florid or exaggerated. He expresses himself in an unexpected,Dionysian way which does not always obey the aesthetic and artistic principles of balance. Vicente's works seem to show a spirit in conflict: his portrayals of the flaws of others appear almost rash and cruel, while his devotional and pastoral works, and those scenes in which he defends the oppressed, give an impression of tenderness, docility, and humaneness. In contrast, his works sometimes include a romanticism which combineseroticism andwaggery with more erudite influences such asPetrarch.
The worlds presented in Vicente's works could be considered as representative of the duality ofPlatonic idealism. The first world is the abstract, an ideal place of serenity and divine love that leads to inner peace, quietness, and "resplendent glory", according to his letter to John III of Portugal. The second world, which he portrays in his farces, is the physical: a false world, tired, without order or remedy, and lacking in strength.
His satirical works depict the second world, in which human flaws are caricatured with little regard for actual or historical truth. Though critics call attention to theseanachronisms and narrative inconsistencies, it's possible that Vicente considered these errors trivial in his portrayals of an already false and imperfect world. In contrast, his representations of the mythic, symbolic, and religious aspects ofChristmas, such as the figure of theVirgin Mother, theinfant Jesus, andChristmas Eve, demonstrate a harmony and purity which is not present in hissocial commentary.
Unlike plays which echoManichaeism by presenting the dichotomy of darkness and light, Vicente's work juxtaposes the two elements in order to illustrate the necessity of both. Christmas Eve, one of his common motifs, is symbolic of his philosophical and religious views: the great darkness borders the divine glory of maternity, birth, forgiveness, serenity, and good will. The darkness is necessary to provide contrast with the light.
Though hispatriotism is apparent in works such asExortação da Guerra ("Exhortation of War") andAuto da Fama ("Act of Fame"), orCortes de Júpiter ("Courts of Jupiter"), it doesn't merely glorify thePortuguese Empire; instead, it is critical and ethically concerned, especially with the newly available vices which arose due to commerce with the East, that brought a sudden enrichment and disruption of the social fabric.
Many of Vicente's plays were composed in order to celebrate religious festivals; these seventeen plays are called his "Obras de devoção" ("Devotional works").[9] In these plays, also called "autos", or "acts", Vicente blended themes fromMedievalmorality plays with theatricalmumming and theliturgical dramas that were used inCorpus Christifestivals.
One of his first devotional plays wasAuto da Fé ("Act of Faith") in 1510. Like a morality play, it explores the journey of theSoul as it travels to the arms of theMother Church. On its way, it is waylaid by theDevil and led to goodness by anAngel.
Hismagnum opus is considered to be theTriologia das Barcas ("Trilogy of the Ships"), which consists of the three playsAuto da Barca do Inferno ("Act of the Ship ofHell"), written 1516;Auto da Barca do Purgatório ("Act of the Ship ofPurgatory"), written in 1518; andAuto da Barca da Glória ("Auto of the Ship ofHeaven"), written in 1519. These plays combine morality narratives with criticism of 16th-century Portuguese society by placing stereotypical characters on a dock to await the arrival of one of the ships which will take them to theireternal destination. The characters are of a variety of social statuses; for example, inAuto da Barca do Inferno, those awaiting passage include anobleman, amadam, a corrupt judge and prosecutor, a dissolute friar, a dishonest shoemaker, a hanged man, and aJew (who would have been consideredbound for Hell in Vicente's time).
His religious lyricism shows the influence of theCantigas de Santa Maria ("Songs of Saint Mary") and is exemplified in such works asAuto de Mofina Mendes ("Act of Mofina Mendes", literally, in the Portuguese of that time, "Act of Disgrace [Mofina] It Self [Mendes]),Anunciação ("Annunciation"), and in the prayer ofSaint Augustine inAuto da Alma ("Act of the Soul"). For this reason, Vicente is sometimes called the "Poet of the Virgin."
His other notable religious works includeAuto Pastoril Castelhano ("Castilian Pastoral Act") written in 1502;Auto dos Reis Magos ("Act of theMagi Kings") written in 1503 for Christmas celebrations; andAuto da Sibila Cassandra ("Act of theSibylCassandra") written in 1503, a play which announced the Renaissance ideals in Portugal.
Vicente's comedies and farces were likely influenced by indigenous popular entertainment. Contemporaneous Spaniards, likeLucas Fernandez and Torres Naharro, may also have influenced his style.[9]
Vicente's comedies blendedslapstick and satire; in addition, his use of dialect clearly delineated the social classes of his characters. Thestaging of these plays maintained the simplicity of morality plays. For example, two simultaneousscenes might utilize a single curtain to divide them.
Auto da Índia ("Act of India"), written in 1509, was one of his first comedies. This play, which shows his proficiency with the form, is comparable to a modernbedroom farce. Vicente wrote farces throughout the rest of his life; one notable example isFarsa de Inês Pereira ("Farce of Inês Pereira"), written in 1523.
Prior to Vicente, few dramatic stagings had taken place in Portugal. However, a few notable performances had established theatrical precedence in courtly and religious contexts.
During the reign ofSancho I of Portugal (1185–1212), Bonamis and Acompaniado, the first recorded Portuguese actors, put on a show ofarremedillo and were paid by the King with the donation of lands.
In a document dated 1281, Frei Telo, Archbishop of Braga, refers to liturgical dramas which were performed during Catholic festivities.
In 1451, theatrical acts accompanied the festivities of the wedding ofInfanta (Princess)Eleanor of Portugal withEmperorFrederick III of Habsburg.
According to the Portuguese chronicles ofFernão Lopes,Gomes Eanes de Zurara,Rui de Pina, and Garcia Resende, spectacular stagings took place in the courts ofJohn I of Portugal,Afonso V of Portugal, andJohn II of Portugal. For example, Rui de Pina refers to one instance in which King John II himself played the part of TheKnight of the Swan in a production which included a scene constructed of fabric waves. During the action, a fleet ofcarracks with a crew of spectacularly dressed actors entered the room accompanied by the sound ofminstrels,trumpets,kettledrum, andartillery.
Other significant Portuguese theatrical works include theeclogues ofBernardim Ribeiro, Cristóvão Falcão, andSá de Miranda, and thePranto de Santa Maria (1435), an early liturgical drama by André Dias. Garcia de Resende, in hisCancioneiro Geral, designates a few other works, such asEntremez do Anjo by D. Francisco of Portugal, Count ofVimioso, and thelays of Anrique da Mota. Vicente likely assisted in the production of these works, which include comedic scenes.
Though Vicente did not invent Portuguese theatre, his works surpassed any done before that time. His writing in Portuguese and in Spanish shaped both modern Spanish and modern Portuguese drama.[1] His contribution to creating new forms, such as the farce, and raising the morality play to its apotheosis created the base upon which Portuguese and Spanish drama would be built. Though some of his works were later suppressed by the Inquisition, he is now recognized as one of the greatest dramatists of the Renaissance and the leading name in Portuguese theatre. According toMarcelino Menéndez Pelayo, Vicente is "the most important figure of the primitivepeninsular playwrights…[There was no one] who surpassed him in Europe in his time."
The first edition of Vicente's complete works was published in Lisbon in 1561–1562 by his children Paula and Luís. In 1586, the second edition was published; however, many parts were heavily censored by theInquisition. The third edition was not published until 1834 inHamburg by Barreto Feio, after which Vicente's work was finally rediscovered.
Since that time, various composers, such asMax Bruch (who madeVon den Rosen komm' ich (Von dem Rosenbusch, o Mutter) from Vicente's De la rosa vengo my madre [from the rose I come my mother], which also had a version by Schumann) andRobert Schumann (who made hisSpanische Liebeslieder [Spanish Love Songs] no. 7.Weh, wie zornig ist das Mädchen from Vicente's Sañosa está la nina [Irritated is the little girl] and no. 3. Lied, op. 29 no. 2 from Vicente's Canción [Song]; and two of hisSpanisches Liederspiel no. 1.Erste Begegnung, op. 74 no. 1 and no. 3. Intermezzo, op. 74 no. 2), have set Vicente's poetry to music in the form oflieder. Most of these were translated intoGerman by Emanuel van Geibel. Chilean composerSylvia Soublette set Vicente's text to music in her song “Del Rosal Vengo.”[14]
A quote from one of Vicente's plays, "The pursuit of love is like falconry", appears in the epigraph ofGabriel García Márquez's novelChronicle of a Death Foretold.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Ford, Jeremiah Denis Mathias (1912). "Gil Vicente". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Prestage, Edgar (1911). "Vicente, Gil". InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–20.
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