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Chinese folklore features a rich variety ofghosts,monsters, and othersupernatural creatures. According to traditional beliefs a ghost is the spirit form of a person who has died. Ghosts are typically malevolent and will cause harm to the living if provoked. Many Chinese folk beliefs about ghosts have been adopted into the mythologies and folklore of neighboring East Asian cultures, notably Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Beliefs about ghosts are closely associated with Chinese ancestor worship, where much have been incorporated intoBuddhism and in turn influenced and created uniquely Chinese Buddhist beliefs about the supernatural.
Traditionally, the Chinese believed that it was possible to contact the spirits of deceased relatives and ancestors through a medium. It was believed that the spirits of the deceased can help them if they were properly respected and rewarded. The annualHungry Ghost Festival, celebrated in China (including Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions), Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, and elsewhere in the Chinese diaspora, is dedicated to performing rituals to honor and remember the spirits of the dead. On this dayghosts and other supernatural creatures come out from theunderworld and move among the living. Families prepare food and other offerings and place them on a shrine dedicated to deceased relatives. Incense and paper money are burned and other rituals are performed in hopes that the spirits of the dead will protect and bring good luck to the family.
Ghosts are described in classical Chinese texts and continue to be depicted in modern literature and movies.
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Chinese:鬼;pinyin:guǐ is the general Chinese term for ghost, used in combination with other symbols to give related meanings such asguilao (鬼佬), literally "ghost man", a Cantonese pejorative term for foreigners, andmogwai (魔鬼) meaning "devil".[1] Characters such as魇;yǎn; 'nightmare' also carry related meanings.[2]
Yan Wang (閻王), also calledYanluowang (閻羅王) is the sovereign of theunderworld. He is also the judge of the underworld, and decides whether the dead will have good or miserable future lives.[3] Although ultimately based on the godYama of the HinduVedas, the Buddhist Yan Wang has developed different myths and different functions from theHindu deity.[4] Yan Wang is normally depicted wearing a Chinese judge's cap in Chinese and Japanese art. He sometimes appears on Chinesehell bank notes.
Zhong Kui (鍾馗) is the vanquisher of ghosts and evil beings. Portraits of him were hung in Chinese houses at the end of the Chinese lunar year to scare away evil spirits and demons. He is depicted as fierce man with a black face and a comic beard brandishing a magic sword. Zhong Kui is said to be himself the ghost of a man who failed to pass the civil service examinations and committed suicide. He then became a ghost hunter. There is a story that theEmperor Xuanzong of Tang once dreamed that a small ghost stole the purse of the imperial consort. A larger ghost – Zhong Kui – captured the smaller one and returned the purse.[5]
There has been extensive interaction between traditional Chinese beliefs and the more recentConfucianism,Taoism, andBuddhism.
Ancestor worship is the original basic Chinese religion. The core belief is that there is a continued existence after death.[7]It is thought that the soul of a deceased person is made up of yin and yang components calledhun and po (魂 and魄). The yin component, po, is associated with the grave, and the yang component, hun, is associated with ancestral tablets. At death the components split into three different souls; the po stays with the body to the grave, another goes to judgment, and the hun resides in an ancestral tablet. The po and hun are not immortal and need to be nourished by offerings made by descendants. Eventually both the po and hun go to the underworld, although the hun goes to heaven first. Unlike in western usages of the term, underworld has no negative connotation.[8]
King Xuan of Zhou (827–783 BC) according toChinese legend executed his minister, Tu Po, on false charges even after being warned that Tu Po's ghost would seek revenge. Three years later, according to historical chronicles, Tu Po's ghost shot and killed Xuan with abow and arrow before an assembly of feudal lords. The Chinese philosopher,Mo Tzu (470–391 BC), is quoted as having commented:
If from antiquity to the present, and since the beginning of man, there are men who have seen the bodies of ghosts and spirits and heard their voices, how can we say that they do not exist? If none have heard them and none have seen them, then how can we say they do? But those who deny the existence of the spirits say: "Many in the world have heard and seen something of ghosts and spirits. Since they vary in testimony, who are to be accepted as really having heard and seen them?" Mo Tzu said: As we are to rely on what many have jointly seen and what many have jointly heard, the case of Tu Po is to be accepted.[9]
Religious Taoism finally came together during theHan dynasty (206 BCE–220 AD) around the time Buddhism was introduced to China, and it rose to predominance during theTang dynasty (618–907 AD), which initially tolerated its coexistence. Reverence for nature and ancestor spirits is common in popular Taoism. Banned during the Cultural Revolution (along with all other religions), religious Taoism is undergoing a major revival today,[10] and it is the spirituality followed by about 30% (400 million) of the total Chinese population.[11]
Buddhism was introduced into China in the 1st century CE, and rapidly became popular with its belief in a continuous cycle of rebirth and more complex ghost beliefs, although the older beliefs lingered. The entry ofBuddhism into China was marked by interaction andsyncretism with Taoism in particular.[12] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.[13]
Elements of pre-Han dynasty mythologies such as those inShan Hai Jing were adapted into these belief systems as they developed (in the case of Taoism), or were assimilated into Chinese culture (in the case of Buddhism). On the other hand, elements from the teachings and beliefs of these systems became incorporated into Chinese mythology. For example, theTaoist belief of a spiritualparadise became incorporated into mythology, as the place where immortals and deities dwell.[citation needed]
The state of ancestor veneration in modern-day China is reported to be declining in urban areas; however, in rural areas of China, as well as Taiwan, ancestor worship and its practices can still be commonly found.[7]Andrew Kipnis finds that, because of the rapid urbanization of China, urban dwellers are more afraid of ghosts than people in the countryside.City people are more detached from death and from the people they interact with and, hence, view the death of their neighbors as a potential source of ghosts.Rural dwellers see the people around them as relatives to some degree so, when they die, they can become ancestors rather than ghosts after the proper ceremonies.Urban cemeteries and funeral businesses are inauspicious and depreciate surrounding real estate.Apartments where unusual deaths happened can be listed in online lists of haunted places lowering the rent price.Authorities try to remove the deceased and the associated facilities from view.Announcing a death in the apartment block is distasteful and setting up an altar for a deceased relative can be illegal in the bigger cities.Scattering the ashes of a cremated person in a park is not allowed as it would make park visitors afraid of ghosts.Funeral parlors may set up small fires so that visitors canjump over them to counter theyin received from the dead.[14]
Many kinds of ghosts have been introduced throughout Chinese folklore and philosophy. In theŚūraṅgama Sūtra, ghosts are depicted as the souls of wicked humans who, after undergoing punishment for their offenses in the afterlife, are eventually reborn as demons. Like the immortalxian, the text describes ten types of ghosts, characterizing each type with their principal offense and their unique ability:[15][16]
Another classification is mentioned inA Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms (翻譯名義集;Fānyì Míngyì Jí). There are nine types of hungry ghosts, all divided into three main classes:[17][18]
The literary termHero among ghosts (鬼雄;guǐxióng) refers to a person who has died a heroic death.
One particular type of ghost, thechāng (伥;倀), is referenced in thefour-character classical idiomwèihǔzuòchāng (为虎作伥;爲虎作倀). In folklore, thechang ghost is said to be the ghost of a person who died of a tiger bite who then assists the tiger by luring to it further victims. This idiom then translates literally to "serving as achang for the tiger", or more loosely as "serving as the tiger's accomplice". Used metaphorically, it refers to a person helping a villain commit evil, with the implication that the person was initially a disinterested party or was even previously a victim of the villain.[19]
Spirits and ghosts exist inTibetan culture.
"A class of malign spirits" called bewitchers ('gong-po) "are thought to frequent the atmosphere and the earth".[20] Many were "bound under an oath of allegiance to Buddhism" by the Buddhist master Padmasambhava during the 8th century.[20] They have the "power to generate life-threatening obstacles" to attack people who recently lost friends or family, but their danger can be "averted by counteractingrituals."[20]
The use ofmediums to communicate with spirits is an important practice in traditional Chinese culture, and is closely linked toancestor worship. The medium (問米;問覡;mun mai poh) or"ask rice woman" helps to ask the ancestor what they require on the other side, and these needs can be provided through the burning of paper effigies. In return, the spirit can be of great help in matters such as winning the lottery or being admitted to low-cost government housing.[21]The person visiting the medium will take a cup of rice from their kitchen to identify the family.Through these communications the dead help the living while the living help the dead.[22]The name involves a pun, since with a change in intonation "ask rice" becomes "spirit medium".[23]
The Ghost Festival (盂蘭節) is a traditional Chinese festival celebrated by Chinese in many countries. The fifteenth day of the seventh month in the lunar calendar is called Ghost Day and the seventh month in general is regarded as the 'Ghost Month' (鬼月), in whichghosts and spirits, including those of the deceased ancestors, come out from thelower realm. Distinct from both theQingming Festival (in Spring) andChung Yeung Festival (in Autumn) in which living descendants pay homage to their deceased ancestors, on Ghost Day, the deceased are believed to visit the living. The festival has a long history. A Japanese pilgrim gave a detailed account of the Ghost festival in theTang capital ofChang'an in the year 840. In those day the festival was usually called by its Buddhist name ofyu lan p'en.[24]
The Buddhists associate the Chung Yuan festival with the legend of Moginlin (Mulian) saving his mother from the underworld. In this story, the hero learns that his mother is starving in the underworld. He travels there, overcoming many difficulties, and offers her food. However, the food bursts into flames before she can eat. In despair, he asksSakyamuni for advice. The Buddha tells him to find ten monks who will fast and pray together with him on the 15th day of the seventh moon. Moginlin follows this advice and finally manages to release his mother from her torments.[25]
On the fifteenth day the realms of Heaven and Hell and the realm of the living are open and Chinese would perform rituals to transmute and absolve the sufferings of the deceased. Intrinsic to the Ghost Month isancestor worship, where traditionally the filial piety of descendants extends to their ancestors even after their deaths. Activities during the month would include preparing ritualistic food offerings, burningincense, and burningjoss paper, apapier-mache form of material items such as clothes, gold and other fine goods for the visiting spirits of the ancestors. Elaborate meals would be served with empty seats for each of the deceased in the family treating the deceased as if they are still living. Ancestor worship is what distinguishes Qingming Festival from Ghost Festival because the latter includes paying respects to all deceased, including the same and younger generations, while the former includes only older generations. Other festivities may include, buying and releasing miniature paper boats andlanterns on water, which signifies giving directions to the lost ghosts and spirits of the ancestors and other deities.[24]
The modern festival of Chung Yuan Putu or "Mid-origin Passage to Universal Salvation" owes its origins to both the BuddhistUllambana (Deliverance) Festival and the Taoist Chinese Ghost Festival, both of which honor the spirits of the departed, and which have now been combined. Historically, families offer sacrifices of the newly harvested grain to departed ancestors on this day. In some parts of China, believers make small roadside fires where they burn paper money and other offerings to appease the restless spirits that have temporarily been released from the underworld.[26]
During the ghost festival, people try to avoid outdoor activities, getting married, or moving to a new house—especially at night.It is thought that if a ghost finds someone in the street and follows them home, they and their family will have bad luck for the next year. People should also avoid bodies of water on Ghost day, since they may be caught and drowned by aShuǐ Guǐ (水鬼), a ghost who had died through drowning and wants to return to life.The Ghost Festival shares some similarities with the predominantlyMexican observance ofEl Día de los Muertos. Due to theme of ghosts and spirits, the festival is sometimes also known as the "Chinese Halloween".[3]
Hungry ghosts is a Chinese concept that differs from other ghosts in Chinese tradition. Traditional belief is that people become ghosts when they die.[27]It was originally thought that ghosts did not have eternal life, but would slowly weaken and eventually die a second time.Hungry ghosts in traditional thought would only be an issue in exceptional cases such a whole family was killed or when a family no longer appreciated their ancestors. With the rise of popularity in Buddhism the idea that souls would live in space until reincarnation became popular.[24]In the Taoist tradition it is believed hungry ghosts can arise from people whose deaths have been violent or unhappy. Both Buddhism and Taoism share the idea that hungry ghosts can emerge from neglect or desertion of ancestors.[28]
According to the Hua-yen Sutra evil deeds will cause a soul to be born in different realms. There are six possible realms of existence for souls.[29]The highest degree of evil deed will cause a soul to be born into a realm as a denizen of hell, the lower degree of that would cause a soul to be born as an animal, and the lowest degree would cause a soul to be born as a hungry ghost.[30]Evil deeds that lead to becoming a hungry ghost would be killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. Desire, greed, anger, and ignorance are all factors in causing a soul to be reborn as a hungry ghost because they are motives for people to perform evil deeds. The least serious of these will cause one to have the destiny of becoming a hungry ghost.[27]
When someone dies, it is important to perform the correct rites to ensure that the departed ancestor does not become a wandering ghost. Since the corpse, or at least the bones, continues to have powers that could affect the fate of living relatives, an expert infeng-shui is needed to determine an auspicious time, place, and orientation of the burial.[31]
In Chinese tradition, aghost marriage (also known as aMinghun orspirit marriage) is a marriage in which one or both parties are deceased.[32]A ghost marriage was usually set up by the family of the deceased and performed for a number of reasons, including the marriage of a couple previously engaged before one member's death, to integrate an unmarried daughter into a patrilineage, to ensure the family line is continued, or to maintain that no younger brother is married before an elder brother.[33]
Fengshen Bang (封神榜; "The Investiture of the Gods") is one of the major vernacular Chinese epicfantasy novels written in theMing dynasty. The story is set in the era of the decliningShang dynasty and rise of theZhou dynasty. It intertwines numerous elements ofChinese mythology, including gods and goddesses, immortals and spirits.The novel is prominent in modern Chinese culture and has been adapted into numerous television series and video games, even inJapanese popular culture.[34]
Journey to the West (西遊記) is one of theFour Great Classical Novels ofChinese literature. Originally published anonymously in the 1590s during theMing dynasty, its authorship has been ascribed to the scholarWu Cheng'en since the 20th century.It tells the story of the monk Xuánzàng and his quest to bring back Buddhist scriptures from Vulture Peak in India.Although some of the obstacles Xuánzàng encounters are political and involve ordinary human beings, they more frequently consist of run-ins with various goblins and ogres, many of whom turn out to be the earthly manifestations of heavenly beings (whose sins will be negated by eating the flesh of Xuánzàng) or animal-spirits with enough Taoist spiritual merit to assume semi-human forms.[35]
Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (聊齋誌異) is a collection of nearly five hundred mostly supernatural tales written byPu Songling inClassical Chinese during the earlyQing dynasty. The compilation was first circulated in manuscript form before it was published posthumously. Sources differ in their account of the year of publication. One source claims the "Strange Tales" were published by Pu's grandson in 1740. However, the earliest existing print version today dates to 1766.Pu is believed to have completed the majority of the tales sometime in 1679, though he could have added entries as late as 1707.[36]Other notable collections of supernatural tales that were published later in theQing dynasty includeWhat the Master Would Not Discuss byYuan Mei andNotes of the Thatched Abode of Close Observations byJi Yun.
The theme of ghosts is popular in Chinese cinema, including films made in Hong Kong, Singapore and the mainland.A Chinese Ghost Story (倩女幽魂) is a1987 Hong Kong romantic comedy-horror film starringLeslie Cheung,Joey Wong, andWu Ma, directed byChing Siu-tung, and produced byTsui Hark. The story is loosely based on a short story inStrange Stories from a Chinese Studio. It was a huge success in Hong Kong,South Korea andJapan and sparked a trend of folklore ghost films in theHK film industry. The movie won many awards.[37][38]Ten years later,A Chinese Ghost Story: The Tsui Hark Animation was based on the same story. The firstChinese animatedfeature film fromHong Kong, it was produced byTsui Hark and his production company,Film Workshop.[39]
Chinese ghost movies may have more modern themes.The Ghost Inside (疑神疑鬼;Yi shen yi gui) is a2005Chinesehorror film directed byHerman Yau, and starringMainlandactors,Liu Ye andGong Beibi and Taiwanese actressBarbie Shu. The film was produced by theChina Film Group and at the time of its filming was the most expensive horror film ever made in mainland China.It tells the story of a young mother fleeing an abusive husband who moves into an apartment haunted by the previous occupants, a mother who had thrown her daughter out of the window before jumping to her death herself.[40]
The Eye (見鬼;见鬼;Jiàn Guǐ) is a 2002 Hong Kong-Singaporean-Thaihorror film directed by thePang brothers. The film spawned two sequels by the Pang brothers,The Eye 2 andThe Eye 10.The film is based on the story of a young woman who receives an eye transplant, which gives her supernatural powers.There are two remakes of this film,Naina, made in 2005 in India andThe Eye, a 2008 Hollywood production starringJessica Alba and produced byPeter Chan and Paula Wagner.[41]
The Maid is a 2005Singaporeanhorror film telling of amaid recently arriving from thePhilippines. She has to acclimate herself to the customs of theChineseGhost Month, during which she struggles withsupernatural forces. The maid is employed by aTeochewopera family, a family with many secrets, who give her a place to stay in their dilapidatedshophouse. The film broke thebox office record in Singapore for the horror genre, won the European Fantastic Film Festival Federation Asian Film Award at the 10thPuchon International Fantastic Film Festival (PiFan).[42]
Marry my Dead Body was a 2022 Taiwanese LGBTQ+ action comedy that centered around a ghost marriage.
In the television seriesThe X-Files, 1996, Season 3, Episode 19 entitledHell Money a story of Chinese ghost culture is spun around a black market organ procurement scheme.
The Teenage Psychic is a Taiwanese mini-series that ran from 2017-2019 about a young medium who communicates with ghosts. It is a fun look into Taiwanese high school life and Taiwanese ghost culture.
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