Aghetto is a part of a city in which members of aminority group are concentrated, especially as a result of political, social, legal, religious, environmental or economic pressure.[1] Ghettos are often known for being moreimpoverished than other areas of the city. Versions of such restricted areas have been found across the world, each with their own names, classifications, and groupings of people.
The main square of what was once theVenetian Ghetto in Italy (2013)
The termghetto acquired deep cultural meaning in theUnited States, especially in the context ofsegregation andcivil rights. It has been widely used in the country since the 20th century to refer to poor neighborhoods of largely minority populations. It is also used in some European countries, such asRomania andSlovakia, to refer to poor neighborhoods largely inhabited byRomani people.[5] The termslum is usually used to refer to areas in developing countries that suffer fromabsolute poverty, while the term ghetto is used to refer to areas of developed countries that suffer fromrelative poverty.
The wordghetto originates from theVenetianghetto, the Jewish quarter in Venice'sCannaregio district where Jews were legally confined following a 1516 decree.[6] In the 16th century,Italian Jews, including those in Venice, commonly used the unrelated Hebrew termḥāṣēr ('courtyard') to refer to a ghetto.[6] By 1855, the termghetto had been extended to refer to "any area occupied predominantly by a particular social or ethnic group, especially a densely populated urban area which is subject to social and economic pressures, tending to restrict its demographic profile."[6]
The etymology of the Italianghetto has long been debated among linguists, with no single theory achieving universal acceptance.[7] Although often cited, the idea that it derives from theHebrewgēṭ ('letter of divorce'; because the ghetto separated Jews from the rest of the population) is considered afolk etymology.[7][6] Similarly, the Italian variantghet, found in some Jewish notarial documents from the late 16th and early 17th centuries, seems to be a folk-etymological modification ofghetto, influenced by the Hebrewgēṭ.[6]
Another commonly held hypothesis, mentioned by theOxford English Dictionary, proposes that the term comes from an unattested Italian*gheto ('foundry'; cf. Italiangetto 'the process of founding or casting metal'; 14th cent.), from post-classical Latiniectus oriactus (attested in a 1295 Venetian source referring to the locality), which could be compared to post-classical Latinghetus orgettus (attested from 1306 in Venetian sources referring to the locality).[6] However, linguistAnatoly Liberman argues that this explanation fails to account for the problematic phonetic change from Latini- to Italiang- ~gh-, and that there is no certainty thatgetto ever meant 'foundry' in the Venetian dialect.[7] Alternatively, Liberman has suggested that in some Romance-speaking regions a slang borrowing from the Germanicgata ('street' or 'narrow street') may have existed in various forms, which eventually evolved into the Italianghetto. Originally, the term may have carried a derogatory sense, referring to the impoverished quarters of exiled Venetian Jews. Over time, folk etymology further shaped its meaning, associating it with ideas like cannon foundries and separation.[7]
Other suggestions, such as that the word is a shortening ofEgitto ('Egypt') orborghetto ('small settlement'), or that it is related to the Old Frenchguect ('guard'), are rejected by linguists as speculative and unconvincing.[7][6] Additional proposals derive the term fromghectus (understood as the Latinized form of Yiddishgehektes 'enclosed') or from the Latin neuterGiudaicetum ('Jewish'), but they too lack sufficient phonetic support.[7]
The character of ghettos has varied through times. The term was used for an area known as the Jewish quarter, which meant the area of a city traditionally inhabited by Jews in thediaspora. Jewish quarters, like the Jewish ghettos in Europe, were often the outgrowths ofsegregated ghettos instituted by the surrounding authorities. A Yiddish term for a Jewish quarter or neighborhood isDi yidishe gas (Yiddish:די ייִדישע גאַס), or 'The Jewish street'. ManyEuropean andMiddle Eastern cities once had a historical Jewish quarter.[citation needed]
Jewish ghettos in Christian Europe existed because of majority discrimination against Jews on the basis of religion, language and dated views on race: They were considered outsiders. As a result, Jews were placed under strict regulations throughout many European cities.[8]
In some cases, the ghetto was a Jewish quarter with a relatively affluent population (for instance the Jewish ghetto in Venice). In other cases, ghettos were places of terrible poverty. During periods of population growth, ghettos (asthat of Rome) had narrow streets and tall, crowded houses. Residents generally were allowed to administer their own justice system based on Jewish traditions and elders.[citation needed]
DuringWorld War II, theNazis established new ghettos in numerous cities of Eastern Europe as a form ofconcentration camp to confine Jews andRomani into limited areas. The Nazis most often referred to these areas in documents and signage at their entrances as "Jewish quarter." These Nazi camps sometimes coincided with traditional Jewish ghettos and Jewish quarters, but not always. On June 21, 1943,Heinrich Himmler issued a decree ordering the dissolution of allJüdische Wohnbezirke/ghettos in the East and their transference toNazi concentration camps or their extermination.[9]
The Nazi ghettos were an essentially different institution than the historical ghettos of European society. The historical ghettos were places where Jews lived for many generations and created their own culture – even if they were under social and political conditions of segregation and discrimination. The Nazi ghettos were part ofThe Final Solution; they were intended as a transitional stage – first confine each city's Jews in one easily accessible and controllable location, then "liquidate" the ghetto and send the Jews to an extermination camp. Most Nazi ghettos were liquidated in 1943; some, such as that ofŁódź, persisted until 1944; very few, e.g. theBudapest Ghetto and theTheresienstadt Ghetto, existed until the end of the war in 1945.
During the period 2010–2021,[14] the wordghetto was used officially by the Danish government to describe certain officially designated vulnerablesocial housing areas in the country.[15][16] The designation was applied to areas based on the residents' income levels, employment status, education levels, criminal convictions and proportion of non-Western immigrants and their descendants.[17][18][19] The term was controversial during its period of use and was finally removed in 2021.[14]
In 2010, theDanish Ministry of Transport, Building and Housing introduced an official listing of vulnerable social housing districts where the inhabitants fulfilled certain criteria. The list has informally and at times formally been calledGhettolisten (the 'List of Ghettos'). Since 2010, the list has been updated annually, with changes in the definition and/or terminology in 2013, 2018 and 2021.[14]
In 2018, the Danish government at the time, led by Prime MinisterLars Løkke Rasmussen, announced its intention to "end the existence ofparallel societies and ghettos by 2030."[19][20] A number of measures was introduced to solve the issue ofintegration, including policies like 25 hours of obligatory daycare or corresponding parent supervision per week for children in the appointed areas starting age 1, lowering social welfare for residents, incentives for reducing unemployment, demolition and rebuilding of certain tenements, rights for landlords to refuse housing to convicts, etc.[20][21][16][18] The policies have been criticized for undercutting 'equality before law' and for portraying immigrants, especially Muslim immigrants, in a bad light.[17][22]
The term "ghetto" was controversial during the period of its usage, inhabitants feeling stigmatized by the wording[23] and researchers pointing out that the areas in question were typically inhabited by 20-40 different ethnic minorities, hence being diametrically opposed to the ethnic homogeneity of the original ghettos, so that multi-ethnic residential areas would be a more appropriate term.[24][25]
In June 2019 a newsocial democraticgovernment was formed in Denmark, withKaare Dybvad becoming housing minister. He stated that the new government would stop using the word "ghetto" for vulnerable housing areas, as it was both imprecise and derogatory.[26] In a 2021 reform, the name was finally removed in legal texts by Parliament. Instead, a new category called "parallel societies" was instituted.[14]
Analysis of data fromCensus 2001 revealed that only twowards inEngland and Wales, both inBirmingham, had one dominant non-white ethnic group comprising more than two-thirds of the local population, but there were 20 wards wherewhites were a minority making up less than a third of the local population.[31][32] By 2001, two London boroughs—Newham andBrent—had "minority majority" populations, and most parts of the city tend to have a diverse population.[citation needed]
Historically, some parts of London have long been noted for the prevalence of a particular ethnic or religious group (such as the Jewish communities ofGolders Green and other parts of theLondon Borough of Barnet, and the West Indian community ofNotting Hill), but in each case these populations have been part of a broader multicultural population. In the late 19th and early 20th century, theEast End of London was also noted for its Jewish population, but now has a significantBritish Bangladeshi populace.[33]
A "peace line" inBelfast, seen from the Irish nationalist/republican side. The small back row of houses are protected by cages as missiles are sometimes thrown from the other side.
Children in the Ghetto and the Ice-Cream Man — postcard from 1909 inMaxwell Street,ChicagoA scene of Maxwell Street in Chicago circa 1908. The title reads "THE GHETTO OF CHICAGO". The image has been colorized and is taken from a souvenir guide to Chicago printed in 1908. Note the signage inYiddish that reads 'Fish Market'.
The development of ghettos in the United States is closely associated with differentwaves of immigration and internal urban migration. TheIrish andGerman immigrants of the mid-19th century were the first ethnic groups to formethnic enclaves in United States cities. This was followed by large numbers of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, including manyItalians andPoles and Russians between 1880 and 1920. Jewish immigrants were part of the earliest German wave, as well as comprising numerous immigrants from Eastern Europe, the Russian Empire at the time.[35] Most remained in their established immigrant communities, but by the second or third generation, many families were able to relocate to newer housing built in thesuburbs after World War II.[36]
These ethnic ghetto areas included theLower East Side inManhattan, New York, which later became notable as predominantlyJewish, and later still as Chinese and Latino.East Harlem was once predominantly Italian and in the 1950s became home to a largePuerto Rican community.Little Italys across the country were predominantly Italian ghettos. Many Polish immigrants settled in areas of other nationals, such asPilsen of Chicago andPolish Hill ofPittsburgh. Since the late 20th century,Brighton Beach inBrooklyn has become the home of predominately Jewish Russian and Ukrainian immigrants, who left after theSoviet Union lifted some migration restrictions and later after its fall.[37]
A commonly used definition of a ghetto is a community distinguished by a homogeneousrace orethnicity. Additionally, a key feature that developed throughout thepost-industrial era and continues to symbolize the demographics of American ghettos is the prevalence of poverty.Poverty constitutes the separation of ghettos from other, suburbanized or private neighborhoods. The high percentage of poverty partly justifies the difficulty ofemigration, which tends to reproduce constraining social opportunities and inequalities in society.[38]
The term ghettos has been commonly used for some time, but ghettos were around long before the term was coined. Urban areas in the U.S. can often be classified as "black" or "white", with the inhabitants primarily belonging to a homogenous racial grouping.[39] This classification can be traced back as early as the year 1880 as African Americans were living in their own neighborhoods.[40] Sixty years after the Americancivil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, most of the United States remains aresidentially segregated society in which black people and white people inhabit different neighborhoods of significantly different quality.[39][41]
Many of these neighborhoods are located in Northern and Western cities where African Americans moved during theGreat Migration (1914–1970), a period when over a million[42]African-Americans moved out of the ruralsouthern United States to escape the widespread racism of the South; to seek out employment opportunities in industrial cities; and to pursue what was widely perceived to be a better quality of life in the North and West, such asNew York City,Detroit,Cleveland,Chicago,Pittsburgh,Los Angeles,Oakland,Portland, andSeattle.[42] African Americans found they had to struggle with white ethnic groups in Northern and Midwestern cities; many of them more recent European immigrants. Often they were restricted to areas of older and poor housing in the new cities where they settled.
The social disruption and economic competition following World War I, as veterans returned to the US, resulted in an outbreak of racial violence of whites against blacks in many of these Northern cities, such as Chicago, Omaha; Washington, DC, and others. Southern industrial cities were also affected. Such racist attacks were extremely violent, in some cases they included burning or bombing homes of African Americans;[43] many innocent blacks were killed. African-American leaders described 1919 as theRed Summer because of the widespread racial outbreaks and white attacks on mainly African Americans.
Two main factors ensured further separation between races and classes, and ultimately the development of contemporary ghettos: the relocation of industrial enterprises, and the movement of middle to upper class residents into suburban neighborhoods. Between 1967 and 1987, economic restructuring resulted in a dramatic decline of manufacturing jobs, which had formerly provided good livings for unionized, working-class blacks and whites. The once thriving northern and western industrial cities survived by a gradual shift to service and financial occupations. Subsidized highways and suburban development in the postwar period had pulled many middle and upper-class families and related businesses to thesuburbs. Those who could not afford to move were left with disrupted neighborhoods and economies in the inner cities. African Americans were disproportionately affected and became either unemployed or underemployed, with little wage and reduced benefits. A concentration of African Americans predominated in someinner city neighborhoods.[38]
It is also significant to compare the demographic patterns between black people and European immigrants, according to thelabor market. European immigrants and African Americans were both subject to an ethnic division of labor. Because of discrimination, African Americans were often restricted to the least secure division of the labor market. David Ward refers to this stagnant position in African-American or Black ghettos as the 'elevator' model, which implies that each group of immigrants or migrants takes turns in the processes of social mobility and suburbanization; and several groups did not start on the ground floor. The inability of black people to move from the ground floor, as Ward suggests, is dependent uponprejudice andsegregationist patterns established in the South prior to World War I, where most African Americans were disenfranchised by the turn of the century and deprived of political power.
After theexodus of African Americans to the North during and after World War I, they had to compete with numerous European immigrants; thus, African-Americans were diminished to unskilled jobs. The slow rate of advancement in black communities outlines the rigidity of the labor market, competition and conflict, adding another dimension to the prevalence of poverty and social instability in African-American or Black ghettos.[44]
In the years following World War II, manywhite Americans began to move away from inner cities to newer suburban communities, a process known aswhite flight. White flight occurred, in part, as a response to black people moving into white urban neighborhoods.[45][46] Discriminatory practices, especially those intended to "preserve" emerging white suburbs, restricted the ability of black people to move from inner cities to the suburbs, even when they were economically able to afford it. In contrast to this, the same period in history marked a massive suburban expansion available primarily to whites of both wealthy and working-class backgrounds, facilitated through highway construction and the availability of federally subsidized home mortgages (VA,FHA,Home Owners' Loan Corporation). These made it easier for families to buy new houses in the suburbs, but not to rent apartments in cities.[47]
The United States began restructuring its economy after World War II, fueled by newglobalizing processes, and demonstrated through technological advances and improvements in efficiency. The structural shift of 1973, during the post-Fordist era, became a large component to the racial ghetto and its relationship with the labor market.Sharon Zukin declares the designated stratum of African-Americans in the labor force was placed even below the working class; low-skill urban jobs were now given to incoming immigrants fromMexico or theCaribbean. Additionally, Zukin notes, "Not only have social services been drastically reduced, punitive and other social controls over the poor have been increased," such as law enforcement and imprisonment.[48]: 514 Described as the "urban crisis" during the 1970s and 1980s, the transition stressed regional divisions according to differences in income and racial lines—white "donuts" around black holes.[49] Hardly coincidental, the steady separation occurred during the period of civil rights laws, urban riots andBlack Power. In addition, theInternational Encyclopedia of Social Sciences stresses the various challenges developed by this "urban crisis", including:[38]: 313
[P]oorly underserviced infrastructures, inadequate housing to accommodate a growing urban populace, group conflict and competition over limited jobs and space, the inability for many residents to compete for new technology-based jobs, and tensions between the public and private sectors left to the formation and growth of U.S. ghettos.
The cumulative economic and social forces in ghettos give way to social, political and economic isolation and inequality, while indirectly defining a separation between superior and inferior status of groups.[citation needed]
In response to the influx of black people from the South, banks, insurance companies, and businesses began denying or increasing the cost of services, such asbanking,insurance, access to jobs,[50]access to health care, or evensupermarkets[51] to residents in certain, often racially determined,[52] areas. The most devastating form ofredlining, and the most common use of the term, refers tomortgage discrimination. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration suggest that in the mid-twentieth century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by non-black people to exclude black people from outside neighborhoods.[53]
The "Racial" Provisions of the FHA Underwriting Manual of 1936 included the following guidelines which exacerbated the segregation issue:
Recommended restrictions should include provision for: prohibition of the occupancy of properties except by the race for which they are intended ... Schools should be appropriate to the needs of the new community and they should not be attended in large numbers by inharmonious racial groups.[45][54]
This meant thatethnic minorities could securemortgage loans only in certain areas, and it resulted in a large increase in the residentialracial segregation andurban decay in the United States.[55] The creation of new highways in some cases divided and isolated black neighborhoods from goods and services, many times within industrial corridors. For example,Birmingham, Alabama's interstate highway system attempted to maintain the racial boundaries that had been established by the city's 1926 racial zoning law. The construction of interstate highways through black neighborhoods in the city led to significant population loss in those neighborhoods and is associated with an increase in neighborhood racial segregation.[56] Residential segregation was further perpetuated because whites were willing to pay more than black people to live in predominantly white areas.[35] Some social scientists suggest that the historical processes ofsuburbanization and decentralization are instances ofwhite privilege that have contributed to contemporary patterns ofenvironmental racism.[57]
Following the emergence of anti-discrimination policies in housing and labor sparked by thecivil rights movement, members of theblack middle class moved out of the ghetto. TheFair Housing Act was passed in 1968. This was the first federal law that outlawed discrimination in the sale and rental of housing on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion and later sex, familial status, and disability. TheOffice of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity was charged with administering and enforcing the law. Since housing discrimination became illegal, new housing opportunities were made available to the black community and many left the ghetto. Urban sociologists frequently title this historical event as "black middle class exodus", orblack flight.Elijah Anderson describes a process by which members of the black middle class begin to distance themselves socially and culturally from ghetto residents during the later half of the twentieth century, "eventually expressing this distance by literally moving away."[58] This is followed by the exodus of black working-class families.[59]: 49 As a result, the ghetto becomes primarily occupied by what sociologists and journalists of the 1980s and 1990s frequently title the "underclass."William Julius Wilson suggests this exodus worsened the isolation of the black underclass — not only were they socially and physically distanced from whites, they also became isolated from the black middle class.[59]: 7–8
Two dominant theories arise pertaining to the production and development of U.S. ghettos: race-based and class-based; as well as an alternative theory put forward byThomas Sowell.[citation needed]
First are the race-based theorists, who argue the importance ofrace in ghettos. Their analysis consists of the dominant racial group in the U.S. (White Anglo-Saxon Protestants) and their use of certain racist tactics in order to maintain theirhegemony over black people and lengthen their spatial separation. Race-based theorists offset other arguments that focus on the influence of theeconomy on segregation. More contemporary research of race-based theorists is to frame a range of methods conducted by white Americans to "preserve race-based residential inequities" as a function of the dominantly white, state-run government. Involving uneven development, mortgage and business discrimination and disinvestment—U.S. ghettos then, as suggested by race-based theorists, are conserved by distinctly racial reasoning.[citation needed]
The more dominant view, on the other hand, is represented byclass-based theorists. Such theories confirm class to be more important than race in the structuring of U.S. ghettos. Although racial concentration is a key signifier for ghettos, class-based theorists emphasize the role and impact of broader societal structures in the creation of African-American or Black ghettos. Dynamics of low-wage service and unemployment triggered fromdeindustrialization, and theintergenerational diffusion of status within families and neighborhoods, for instance, prove the rise in socioeconomic polarization between classes to be the creator of American ghetto; notracism.[60] Furthermore, theculture of poverty theory, first developed byOscar Lewis, states that a prolonged history of poverty can itself become a cultural obstacle to socioeconomic success, and in turn can continue a pattern of socioeconomic polarization. Ghettos, in short, instill a cultural adaptation to social and class-based inequalities, reducing the ability of future generations to mobilize ormigrate.[49]
An alternative theory put forward byThomas Sowell inBlack Rednecks and White Liberals asserts that modern urban black ghetto culture is rooted in the whiteCracker culture of theNorth Britons andScots-Irish who migrated from the generally lawlessborder regions of Britain to the American South, where they formed aredneck culture common to both black and white people in theantebellum South. Characteristics of this culture included lively music and dance, violence, unbridled emotions, flamboyant imagery, illegitimacy, religious oratory marked by strident rhetoric, and a lack of emphasis on education and intellectual interests.[61] Because redneck culture proved counterproductive, "that culture long ago died out...among both white and black Southerners, while still surviving today in the poorest and worst of the urban black ghettos",[62] which Sowell described as being characterized by "brawling, braggadocio, self-indulgence, [and] disregard of the future",[62] and where "belligerence is considered being manly and crudity is considered cool, while being civilized is regarded as 'acting white'."[61] Sowell blames liberal Americans who since the 1960s have embraced black ghetto culture as the only "'authentic' black culture and even glamorize it" while they "denounce any criticism of the ghetto lifestyle or any attempt to change it."[61] Sowell asserts that white liberal Americans have perpetuated this "counterproductive and self-destructive lifestyle" among black Americans living in urban ghettos through "the welfare state, and look-the-other-way policing, and smiling at 'gangsta rap'."[62]
Contemporary African-American or Black ghettos are characterized by an overrepresentation of a particular ethnicity or race, vulnerability to crime, social problems, governmental reliance and political disempowerment.Sharon Zukin explains that through these reasons, society rationalizes the term "bad neighborhoods." Zukin stresses that these circumstances are largely related to "racial concentration, residential abandonment, and de-constitution and reconstitution of communal institutions."[48]: 516 Many scholars diagnose this poorly facilitated and fragmented view of the United States as the "age of extremes." This term argues that inequalities of wealth and power reinforce spatial separation; for example, the growth ofgated communities can be interconnected with the continued "ghettoization" of the poor.[49]
Another characteristic to African-American or Black ghettos and spatial separation is the dependence on the state, and lack of communalautonomy; Sharon Zukin refers toBrownsville, Brooklyn, as an example. This relationship between racial ghettos and the state is demonstrated through various push and pull features, implemented through government subsidized investments, which certainly assisted the movement of white Americans into the suburbs afterWorld War II. Since the 1960s, after the de-constitution of the inner cities, African-American or Black ghettos have attempted to reorganize or reconstitute; in effect, they are increasingly regarded as public- and state-dependent communities. Brownsville, for instance, initiated the constitution of community-established public housing, anti-poverty organizations, and social service facilities—all, in their own way, depend on state resources. However, certain dependence contradicts society's desires to be autonomous actors in the market. Moreover, Zukin implies, "the less 'autonomous' the community—in its dependence on public schools, public housing and various subsidy programs—the greater the inequity between their organizations and the state, and the less willing residents are to organize."[48]: 517 This should not, however, undermine local development corporations or social service agencies helping these neighborhoods. The lack of autonomy and growing dependence on the state, especially in aneoliberal economy, remains a key indicator to the production as well as the prevalence of African-American or Black ghettos, particularly due to the lack of opportunities to compete in the global market.[48]
The concept of theghetto andunderclass has faced criticism both theoretically and empirically. Research has shown significant differences in resources for neighborhoods with similar populations both across cities and over time.[63][64] This includes differences in the resources of neighborhoods with predominantly low income or racial minority populations. The cause of these differences in resources across similar neighborhoods has more to do with dynamics outside of the neighborhood.[65] To a large extent the problem with theghetto andunderclass concepts stem from the reliance on case studies (in particular case studies from Chicago), which limit social scientist understandings of socially disadvantaged neighborhoods.
Despite mainstream America's use of the termghetto to signify a poor, culturally or racially homogenous urban area, those living in the area often used it to signify something positive. The black ghettos did not always contain dilapidated houses and deteriorating projects, nor were all of its residents poverty-stricken. For many African-Americans, the ghetto was "home": a place representing authenticblackness and a feeling, passion, or emotion derived from rising above the struggle and suffering of being black in America.[66]
Langston Hughes relays in his "Negro Ghetto" (1931) and "The Heart of Harlem" (1945) poems:[67]
The buildings in Harlem are brick and stone And the streets are long and wide, But Harlem's much more than these alone, Harlem is what's inside.
Recently the word "ghetto" has been used inslang as anadjective rather than anoun. It is used to indicate an object's relation to the inner city and also more broadly to denote something that is shabby or of low quality. While "ghetto" as an adjective can be used derogatorily, the African-American or Black community, particularly thehip hop scene, has taken the word for themselves and begun using it in a more positive sense that transcends its derogatory origins.[68]
In 1973,Geographical Review claimed "The degree of residential segregation of the black community is greater than for any other group in urban America, yet black people have not had the political power necessary to exercise any significant degree of control over the improvement of the basic services necessary for their health, education, and welfare."[69][70] Scholars have been interested in the study of African-American or Black ghettos precisely for the concentration of disadvantaged residents and their vulnerability to social problems. American ghettos also bring attention to geographical and political barriers, and asDoreen Massey highlights, that racial segregation in African-American or Black ghettos challenge America's democratic foundations.[49] However, it is still advocated that "One solution to these problems depends on our ability to use the political process in eliminating the inequities... geographical knowledge and theory to public-policy decisions about poor people and poor regions is a professional obligation."[69][70]
Before and during World War II, many Jews fled fromGerman-occupied Europe to Shanghai. After Japan invaded China, it established theShanghai Ghetto, an area of approximately one square mile (≈ 2.6km2) in theHongkou District of theEmpire of Japan, to which it relocated about 20,000Jewish refugees under itsProclamation Concerning Restriction of Residence and Business of Stateless Refugees.[71]
"In the Ghetto" (originally titled "The Vicious Circle"), a 1969 song about birth and life in slum areas, written byMac Davis and made famous byElvis Presley
^"UDSATTE BOLIGOMRÅDER — DE NÆSTE SKRIDT"(PDF).ft.dk. The Immigration and Integration Affairs Committee of the Danish Parliament. May 2013.Archived(PDF) from the original on 2019-06-30. (in Danish).
^"History Battle of the Bogside".The Museum of Free Derry. 2015-07-31. Archived from the original on 2015-07-31. Retrieved2017-04-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^Sklare, Marshall; Greenblum, Joseph (1979).Jewish identity on the suburban frontier: a study of group survival in the open society (2. ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-76176-3.
^Federal Housing Administration,Underwriting Manual: Underwriting and Valuation Procedure Under Title II of theNational Housing Act with Revisions to February, 1938 (Washington, D.C.), Part II, Section 9, Rating of Location.
^Connerly, Charles E. (2002). "From Racial Zoning to Community Empowerment: The Interstate Highway System and the African American Community in Birmingham, Alabama".Journal of Planning Education and Research.22 (2):99–114.doi:10.1177/0739456X02238441.S2CID144767245.
^Pulido, Laura (2000). "Rethinking Environmental Racism: White Privilege and Urban Development in Southern California".Annals of the Association of American Geographers.90 (1):12–40.doi:10.1111/0004-5608.00182.hdl:10214/1833.S2CID38036883.
^Small, Mario L.; McDermott, Monica (2006). "The Presence of Organizational Resources in Poor Urban Neighborhoods: An Analysis of Average and Contextual Effects".Social Forces.84 (3):1697–1724.doi:10.1353/sof.2006.0067.S2CID44243405.
^Logan, John; Molotch, Harvey (1987).Urban Fortunes : The Political Economy of Place. Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-06341-9.
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