The nameGhana comes fromWagadu, an empire in west Africa from the 3rd to 12th centuries; Wagadu was termedGhana by Arab traders involved in thetrans-Saharan trade.Ghana is thought to originate from the titleKaya Maghan of the rulers of Wagadu, which translates asruler of gold. As theGold Coast colony prepared for independence, the nation's leader and first prime minister later first presidentKwame Nkrumah who together with five others known asThe Big Six, led Ghana to independence, settled onGhana, aiming to evoke a sense of unity and liberation among theGhanaian people. The name was a powerful reminder of their shared heritage and the legacy of the ancient empire that once thrived in the wider region. It encapsulated the aspirations of the Ghanaian people for self-governance, progress, and a future marked by dignity and resilience.[25]
The earliest kingdoms to emerge in Ghana wereBonoman in the south and theKingdom of Dagbon in the north, with Bonoman existing in the area during the 11th century.[13][26] From the 17th century, different Akan states began to emerge from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, mainly based on gold trading.[27] These states included Bonoman (Brong-Ahafo region),Adansi andAsante (Ashanti Region),Denkyira (Western North region),Mankessim Kingdom (Central region),Akyem andAkwamu(Eastern region).[26][28] By the 19th century, the territory of the southern part of Ghana was included in theAsante Kingdom.[26] The government of the Ashanti Empire operated first as a loose network and eventually as a centralised kingdom with a specialised bureaucracy centred in the capital city ofKumasi.[26] Prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan people created an economy based on principally gold andgold bar precious metals, which were traded with other states in Africa.[26][29]
The Ga-Dangme and Ewe migrated westward from south-westernNigeria. The Ewe, formerly known as Dogbo, migrated from Oyo area with their Gbe-speaking kinsmen (Adja, Fon, Phla/Phera and Ogun/Gun) and, in transition, settled at Ketou in Benin Republic, Tado in Togo, and Dogbo Nyigbo in Benin Republic, with Nortsie (a walled town in present-day Togo) as their final dispersal point. Their dispersal from Nortsie was necessitated by the high-handed rule of King Agorkorli (Agɔ Akɔli), who was the reigning monarch of the tribe at that time. The Ewe in Ghana speak three principal dialects: Anlo (along the coast), Tongu (along the Volta river) and Ewedome (in the hill country side). TheGa-Dangme occupy the Greater Accra Region and parts of the Eastern Region, while the Ewe are found in theVolta Region as well as the neighbouring Togo, Benin Republic and Nigeria (around Badagry area).[citation needed]
Akan trade with European states began after contact with thePortuguese in the 15th century.[30] European contact was by thePortuguese people, who came to theGold Coast region in the 15th century to trade. The Portuguese then established thePortuguese Gold Coast (Costa do Ouro), focused on the availability of gold.[31] The Portuguese built a trading lodge at a coastal settlement called Anomansah (the perpetual drink), which they renamedSão Jorge da Mina.[31] In 1481, KingJohn II of Portugal commissionedDiogo de Azambuja to build theElmina Castle, which was completed in three years.[31] By 1598, theDutch had joined the Portuguese in the gold trade, establishing theDutch Gold Coast (Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea – 'Dutch properties at the Guinea coast') and building forts atFort Komenda and Kormantsi.[32] In 1617, the Dutch captured the Elmina Castle from the Portuguese andAxim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony).[32]
European traders had joined in gold trading by the 17th century, including theSwedes, establishing theSwedish Gold Coast (Svenska Guldkusten), andDenmark–Norway, establishing theDanish Gold Coast (Danske Guldkyst orDansk Guinea).[33] European traders participated in theAtlantic slave trade in this area.[34] More than 30 forts and castles were built by the merchants. The Germans established theBrandenburger Gold Coast or Groß Friedrichsburg.[35] In 1874, Great Britain established control over some parts of the country, assigning these areas the status of theBritish Gold Coast.[36]Military engagements occurred between British colonial powers and Akan nation-states. The Kingdom ofAshanti defeated the British some times in the 100-year-longAnglo-Ashanti wars and eventually lost with theWar of the Golden Stool in 1900.[37][38][39]
A Gold Coast postage stamp overprinted for Ghanaian independence in 1957
Celebrations marking Ghana's independence on 6 March 1957
In 1947, the newly formedUnited Gold Coast Convention led by"The Big Six" called for "self-government within the shortest possible time" following the1946 Gold Coast legislative election.[33][40]Kwame Nkrumah, a Ghanaian nationalist who led Ghana from 1957 to 1966 as the country's firstprime minister andpresident, formed theConvention People's Party in 1949 with the motto "self-government now".[33] The party initiated a "positive action" campaign involving non-violent protests, strikes and non-cooperation with the British authorities. Nkrumah was arrested and sentenced to one year imprisonment during this time. In the Gold Coast's1951 general election, he was elected to Parliament and was released from prison.[33] He became prime minister in 1952 and began a policy of Africanization.[citation needed]
The government of Nkrumah was subsequently overthrown in a coup by theGhana Armed Forces, codenamed "Operation Cold Chop". This occurred while Nkrumah was abroad withZhou Enlai in the People's Republic of China, on a mission toHanoi, Vietnam, to help end theVietnam War. The coup took place on 24 February 1966, led by ColonelEmmanuel Kwasi Kotoka and Brigadier Akwasi Afrifa. TheNational Liberation Council was formed, chaired by Lieutenant GeneralJoseph A. Ankrah.[52][53]
After the2000 general election,John Kufuor of theNew Patriotic Party became president of Ghana on 7 January 2001 and wasre-elected in 2004, thus also serving two terms (the term limit) as president of Ghana and marking the first time under the fourth republic that power was transferred from one legitimately elected head of state and head of government to another.[57]
Ghana lies on theGulf of Guinea inWest Africa, a few degrees north of theEquator. It covers 238,540 km2 (92,101 sq mi) and has anAtlantic coastline of about 560 kilometres (350 miles).[69] It is situated between latitudes 4°45′N and 11°N, and longitudes 1°15′E and 3°15′W. ThePrime Meridian passes throughTema, near Accra, making Ghana the country closest to the intersection of the Prime Meridian and the Equator (0°, 0°), located offshore in the Atlantic.[69]
Nana Akufo-Addo won the presidency in thegeneral election in 2016, defeating incumbentJohn Mahama. He also won the2020 election after the presidential election results were challenged at the Supreme Court by flagbearer of the NDC, John Mahama. Presidents are limited to two four-year terms in office.
The 2012Fragile States Index indicated that Ghana is ranked the 67th-least fragile state in the world and the fifth-least fragile state in Africa. Ghana ranked 112th out of 177 countries on the index.[86] Ghana ranked as the 64th-least corrupt and politically corrupt country in the world out of all 174 countries ranked and ranked as the fifth-least corrupt and politically corrupt country in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012Transparency International Corruption Perception Index.[87][88] Ghana was ranked seventh in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012Ibrahim Index of African Governance. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens.[89] According to 2023V-Dem Democracy indices Ghana is ranked 67th electoral democracy worldwide and 10thelectoral democracy in Africa.[90]
Kofi Annan, Ghanaian diplomat and United Nations Secretary-General 1997–2006
Since independence, Ghana has been devoted to ideals of nonalignment and is a founding member of theNon-Aligned Movement. Ghana favours international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of theUnited Nations and theAfrican Union.[91]
TheSustainable Development Goals (SDG) were integrated into Ghana's development agenda and the budget. According to reports, the SDGs were implemented through a decentralized planning approach. This allows for stakeholders' participation, such as in UN agencies, traditional leaders, civil society organizations, academia, and others.[101] The 17 SDGs are a global call to action to end poverty among others, and the UN and its partners in the country are working towards achieving them.[102] According to the PresidentNana Akufo-Addo, Ghana was "the first Sub-Saharan African country to achieve the goal of halving poverty, as contained in Goal 1 of theMillennium Development Goals".[103]
Themilitary operations andmilitary doctrine of the GAF are conceptualised in the constitution, Ghana's Law on Armed Force Military Strategy, andKofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre agreements to which GAF is attestator.[106][107][108] GAF military operations are executed under the auspices and imperium of theMinistry of Defence.[106][109] Although Ghana is relatively peaceful and is often considered being one of the least violent countries in the region, Ghana has experienced political violence in the past and 2017 has thus far seen an upward trend in incidents motivated by political grievances.[110]
TheGhana Police Service and theCriminal Investigation Department are the main law enforcement agencies, responsible for the detection of crime, maintenance of law and order and the maintenance of internal peace and security.[111] The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialised police units, including aMilitarized policeRapid deployment force andMarine Police Unit.[112][113] The Ghana Police Service operates in 12 divisions: ten covering the regions of Ghana, one assigned specifically to the seaport and industrial hub ofTema, and the twelfth being the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division.[113] The Ghana Police Service's Marine Police Unit and Division handles issues that arise from the country's offshoreoil and gas industry.[113]
TheGhana Prisons Service and the sub-divisionBorstal Institute for Juveniles administers incarceration.[114] Ghana retains and exercises the death penalty for treason, corruption, robbery, piracy, drug trafficking, rape, and homicide.[115][116] The new sustainable development goals adopted by the United Nations call for the international community to come together to promote the rule of law; support equal access to justice for all; reduce corruption; and develop effective, accountable, and transparent institutions at all levels.[117]
Ghana is among the sovereign states of West Africa used bydrug cartels and drug traffickers (shown in orange).
Ghana is used as a key narcotics industry transshipment point by traffickers, usually from South America as well as some from other African nations.[118] In 2013, the UN chief of the Office on Drugs and Crime stated that "West Africa is completely weak in terms of border control and the big drug cartels fromColombia andLatin America have chosen Africa as a way to reach Europe."[119] There is not a wide or popular knowledge about the narcotics industry and intercepted narcotics within Ghana, since it is anunderground economy. The social context within which narcotic trafficking, storage, transportation, and repacking systems exist in Ghana and the state's location along the Gulf of Guinea makes Ghana an attractive country for the narcotics business.[118][120] TheNarcotics Control Board has impounded container ships at the Sekondi Naval Base in theTakoradi Harbour. These ships were carrying thousands of kilograms of cocaine, with a street value running into billions ofGhana cedis. However, drug seizures saw a decline in 2011.[118][120]Drug cartels are using new methods in narcotics production and narcotics exportation, to avoid Ghanaian security agencies.[118][120] Underdeveloped institutions, porous open borders, and the existence of established smuggling organisations contribute to Ghana's position in the narcotics industry.[118][120] President Mills initiated ongoing efforts to reduce the role of airports in Ghana's drug trade.[118]
Homosexual acts are prohibited by law in Ghana.[121] According to a 2013 survey by thePew Research Center, 96% of Ghanaians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.[122] Sometimes elderlywomen in Ghana are accused ofwitchcraft, particularly in rural Ghana. Issues of witchcraft mainly remain as speculations based on superstitions within families. In some parts of northern Ghana, there exist what are calledwitch camps. These are said to house a total of around 1,000 people accused of witchcraft.[123] The Ghanaian government has announced that it intends to close the camps.[123][needs update]
Ghana's economy has ties to theChinese yuan renminbi along with Ghana's vast gold reserves. In 2013, theBank of Ghana began circulating the renminbi throughout Ghanaian state-owned banks and to the Ghana public ashard currency along with the nationalGhanaian cedi for second national trade currency.[126]
Between 2012 and 2013, 38% of rural dwellers were experiencing poverty whereas only 11% of urban dwellers were.[127] Urban areas hold greater opportunity for employment, particularly in informal trade, while nearly all (94 percent) of "rural poor households" participate in the agricultural sector.[128]
Ghana produces high-qualitycocoa.[134] It is the second largest producer of cocoa globally and itsICCO membership helps in its international cocoa trade.[135] Ghana is classified as a middle-income country.[5][136]Services account for 50% of GDP, followed by manufacturing (24.1%),extractive industries (5%), and taxes (20.9%).[129]
Ghana's economy is characterized by a growing manufacturing sector and the export of digital technology products. The country is also engaged in the assembly and export of automobiles and ships. Additionally, Ghana's economy benefits from a diverse range of resource-rich exports, including industrial minerals and agricultural products, with cocoa being a primary commodity. The nation is also a significant producer and exporter ofpetroleum andnatural gas.[137]
Theinformation and communications technology (ICT) sector plays a crucial role in Ghana's industrial landscape, with companies such asRlg Communications, a state-affiliated digital technology corporation, leading in the production of tablet computers, smartphones, and various consumer electronics.[138]
Ghana announced plans to issue government debt by way of social and green bonds in autumn of 2021, making it the first African country to do so.[141][142] The country, which was planning to borrow up to $5 billion in international markets,[when?] would use the proceeds from these sustainable bonds to refinance debt used for social and environmental projects and pay for educational or health. Only a few other nations have sold them so far, includingChile andEcuador. The country will use the proceeds to forge ahead with a free secondary-school initiative started in 2017 among other programs, despite having recorded its lowest economic growth rate in 37 years in 2020.[143]
Ghana produces and exportshydrocarbons such assweet crude oil and natural gas.[144][145] The 100%-state-ownedfilling station company,Ghana Oil Company, is the number one petroleum and gas filling station, and the 100%-state-owned state oil company Ghana National Petroleum Corporation overseeshydrocarbon exploration and production of petroleum and natural gas reserves. Ghana aims to further increase the output of oil to 2.2 million barrels (350,000 m3) per day and gas to 34,000,000 cubic metres (1.2×10^9 cu ft) per day.[146] TheJubilee Oil Field, which contains up to 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m3) of sweet crude oil, was discovered in 2007.[147] Ghana is believed to have up to 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m3) to 7 billion barrels (1.1×109 m3) of petroleum in reserves,[148] which is the fifth-largest in Africa and the 21st-to-25th-largest proven reserves in the world. It also has up to 1.7×1011 cubic metres (6×10^12 cu ft) of natural gas in reserves.[149] The government has drawn up plans tonationalise petroleum and natural gas reserves to increase government revenue.[150]
In 2015, Ghana produced 88 metric tonnes of gold as per theOur World in Data report.[151] As of 2019, Ghana was the 7th largest producer of gold in the world, producing ~140tonnes that year.[152] This record saw Ghana surpass South Africa in output for the first time, making Ghana the largest gold producer in Africa.[153] In addition to gold, Ghana exportssilver, timber,diamonds,bauxite, andmanganese, and has other mineral deposits.[154] Ghana ranks 9th in the world in diamond export and reserve size.[155] The government has drawn up plans tonationalize mining industry to increase government revenue.[154][156]
"Shortages" of electricity in 2015 and 2016 led todumsor ("persistent, irregular and unpredictable" electric power outages),[157] increasing the interest in renewables.[158] As of 2019, there is a surplus of electricity.[159]
Thejudicial system of Ghana deals with corruption, economic malpractice and lack of economic transparency. According to Transparency International'sCorruption Perceptions Index of 2018, out of 180 countries, Ghana was ranked 78th, with a score of 41 on a scale where a 0–9 score means highly corrupt, and a 90–100 score means very clean. This was based on perceived levels of public sector corruption.[160]
In 2011, tourists visiting Ghana numbered 1,087,000,[168] with arrivals including South Americans, Asians, Europeans, and North Americans.[169] Among the attractions and tourist destinations are waterfalls such asKintampo waterfalls and the largest waterfall in west Africa,Wli waterfalls, the coastal palm-lined sandy beaches, caves, mountains, rivers, and reservoirs and lakes such asLake Bosumtwi and the largest human-made lake in the world by surface area,Lake Volta, dozens offorts and castles,World Heritage Sites, nature reserves and national parks.[169] Notable castles areCape Coast Castle and theElmina Castle.[170] Castles mark where blood was shed in the slave trade and preserve and promote the African heritage stolen and destroyed through the slave trade.[171] TheWorld Heritage Convention of UNESCO named Ghana's castles and forts as World Heritage Monuments: "The Castles and Forts of Ghana shaped not only Ghana's history but that of the world over four centuries as the focus of first the gold trade and then the slave trade. They are a significant and emotive symbol of European–African encounters and of the starting point of the African Diaspora."[171]
TheWorld Economic Forum statistics in 2010 showed that out of the world's favourite tourist destinations, Ghana was ranked 108th out of 139 countries.[172] The country had moved two places up from the 2009 rankings. In 2011,Forbes magazine published that Ghana was ranked the 11th most friendly country in the world. The assertion was based on a survey in 2010 of a cross-section of travellers. Of all the African countries that were included in the survey, Ghana ranked highest.[172] Tourism is the fourth highest earner of foreign exchange for the country.[172] In 2024, Ghana ranked as the55th most peaceful country in the world.[173]
Up and down the coastline, surfing spots have been identified and cultivated by locals and internationals. Surfers have made trips to the country to sample the waves. Surfers carried their boards amidtraditional fishing vessels.[174]
According to Destination Pride,[175] Ghana's Pride score is 22 (out of 100).[176]
As of 2024[update], the United Nations reports Ghana has a population of 34,581,288.[177] As of 2018[update], around 29% of the population is under the age of 15, while persons aged 15–64 make up 57.8% of the population.[178] The 2010 census reported that the largest ethnic groups are theAkan (47.3%), theMole-Dagbani (18.5%), theEwe (13.9%), theGa-Dangme (7.4%), theGurma (5.7%) and theGuan (3.7%).[179] As of 2024[update], the United Nations reports the median age of Ghanaian citizens is 21 years old.[180] Ghana contributes 0.42% to the total world population.[177]
Withrecent legal immigration ofskilled workers who possessGhana Cards, there is a small population of Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, Middle Eastern and European nationals. In 2010, theGhana Immigration Service reported manyeconomic migrants andundocumented immigrants inhabiting Ghana: 14.6% (or 3.1 million) of Ghana's 2010 population (mostly Nigerians, Burkinabe citizens, Togolese citizens, and Malian citizens). In 1969, under the "Ghana Aliens Compliance Order" enacted by then Prime MinisterKofi Abrefa Busia,[181] theBorder Guard Unit deported more than 3,000,000 aliens and undocumented immigrants in three months as they made up 20% of the population at the time.[181][182][183] In 2013, there was a mass deportation of undocumented miners, more than 4,000 of whom were Chinese nationals.[184][185]
Of these, Asante Twi is the most widely spoken.[190]
Because Ghana is surrounded byFrench-speaking countries, French is widely taught in schools and used for commercial and international economic exchanges. Since 2005, Ghana has been an associate member of theOrganisation internationale de la Francophonie,[191] the global organisation that unites French-speaking countries (84 nations on six continents). In 2005, more than 350,000 Ghanaian children studied French in schools. Since then, its status has been progressively updated to a mandatory language in every junior high school,[192] and it is in the process of becoming an official language.[193][194]
Ghanaian Pidgin English, also known as Kru English (or in Akan,kroo brofo), is a variety ofWest African Pidgin English spoken in Accra and in the southern towns.[195] It can be divided into two varieties, referred to as "uneducated" or "non-institutionalized" pidgin and "educated" or "institutionalized" pidgin, the former associated with uneducated or illiterate people and the latter acquired and used in institutions such as universities.[196]
Christianity is the largest religion in Ghana, with 71.3% of the population being members of variousChristian denominations as of the 2021 census.[197]Islam is practised by 20% of the total population. According to a 2012 report byPew Research, 51% of Muslims are followers ofSunni Islam, while approximately 16% belong to theAhmadiyya movement and around 8% identify withShia Islam, while the remainder arenon-denominational Muslims.[198][199] There is "no significant link between ethnicity and religion in Ghana".[200]
Ghana has around 150,000 Jehovah's Witnesses.[201]
The Grand Orange Lodge of Ghana is aProtestantfraternal organization within theOrange Order.[202] The most famous governed by theGrand Lodge is The Loyal Leopold Lodge No. 907. It was founded in 1894 by a Britishcolonial official, Dr. A.D. MacDonald. The lodge initially served as asocial club for European administrators,military officers, and merchants.[203] Over time, it began to admit local African members, which was a significant departure from the lodges inIreland andBritain that were overwhelmingly white and Protestant. Today, it's members continue to participate in events andparades, includingThe Twelfth.[204] They also are involved in community and charitable work.[205]
Ghana has auniversal health care system,National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS), which is strictly designated forGhanaian nationals.[206] Health care is variable throughout Ghana and in 2012, more than 12 million Ghanaian nationals were covered by the NHIS.[207] Urban centres are well served and contain most of the hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies. There are more than 200 hospitals, and Ghana is a destination formedical tourism.[208] In 2010, there were 0.1 physicians per 1,000 people and as of 2011[update], 0.9 hospital beds per 1,000 people.[178] In 2010, 5.2% of Ghana's GDP was spent on health.[209] In 2020, the WHO announced Ghana became the second country in the WHO African Region to attain regulatory system "maturity level 3", the second-highest in the four-tiered WHO classification ofNational medicines regulatory systems.[210]
Life expectancy at birth in 2021 was 68.6 for a female and 63.7 for a male.[211] In 2013,infant mortality was to 39 per 1,000 live births.[212] Sources vary on life expectancy at birth; theWorld Health Organization (WHO) estimated 62 years for men and 64 years for women born in 2016.[213] The fertility rate declined from 3.99 (2000) to 3.28 (2010) with 2.78 in urban region and 3.94 in rural region.[179] The United Nations reports a fertility decline from 6.95 (1970) to 4.82 (2000) to 3.93 live births per woman in 2017.[214]
As of 2012[update], theHIV/AIDS prevalence was estimated at 1.40% among adults aged 15–49.[215]
The education system is divided into three parts: basic education, secondary cycle, and tertiary education. "Basic education" lasts 11 years (ages 4‒15).[216] It is divided into kindergarten (two years), primary school (two modules of three years) and junior high (three years). Junior high school ends with theBasic Education Certificate Examination.[216][217] Once certified, the pupil can proceed to the secondary cycle.[218] Hence, the pupil has the choice between general education (offered by the senior high school) and vocational education (offered by the technical senior high school or the technical and vocational institutes). Senior high school lasts three years and leads to theWest African Senior School Certificate Examination, which is a prerequisite for enrollment in a university bachelor's degree programme.[219]: 7 Polytechnics are open to vocational students.[220]
There are more than 95% of children in school.[223][224] The literacy rate of youth ages 15 to 24 years old was 81% in 2010, with males at 82%,[225] and females at 80%.[226] An education system annually attractsforeign students particularly in the university sector.[227][228]
Ghana has afree education six-year primary school education system beginning at age 6.[229] The government largely funds basic education comprising public primary schools and public junior high schools. Senior high schools were subsidised by the government until September 2017/2018 academic year that senior high education became free.[230] At the higher education level, the government funds more than 80% of resources provided to public universities, polytechnics and teacher training colleges. As part of the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education, Fcube, the government supplies all basic education schools with all their textbooks and other educational supplies, like exercise books. Senior high schools are provided with all their textbook requirements by the government. Private schools acquire their educational material from private suppliers.[231]
Ghanaian cuisine includes an assortment of soups and stews with varied seafoods; most Ghanaian soups are prepared with vegetables, meat, poultry or fish.[232] Fish is important in the diet with tilapia, roasted and friedwhitebait, smoked fish and crayfish, all being common components of Ghanaian dishes.[232]Banku (akple) is a common starchy food made from ground corn (maize),[232] and cornmeal based staples kɔmi (kenkey) and banku (akple) are usually accompanied by some form of fried fish (chinam) or grilled tilapia and a very spicy condiment made from raw red and green chillies, onions and tomatoes (pepper sauce).[232] Banku and tilapia is a combo served in most restaurants.[232]Fufu is the most common exported Ghanaian dish and is a delicacy across theAfrican diaspora.[232] Rice is an established staple meal across the country, with various rice-based dishes serving as breakfast, lunch and dinner, the main variants are waakye, plain rice and stew (either kontomire or tomato gravy), fried rice andjollof rice.[233]
Ghanaian literature is literature produced by authors from Ghana or in theGhanaian diaspora. It starts with a long oral tradition, was influenced heavily by western literature during colonial rule, and became prominent with a post-colonial nationalist tradition in the mid-20th century.[234][235][236] The current literary community continues with a diverse network of voices both within and outside the country, including in film, theatre, and modern digital formats such as blogging.[235][236]
The Ghanaian national literature radio programme and accompanying publicationVoices of Ghana (1955–1957) was one of the earliest on the African continent, and helped establish the scope of the contemporary literary tradition in Ghana.[238] Scholarship of Anglophone Africa sometimes favours literatures from other geographies, such as theliterature of Nigeria.[239]
During the 13th century, Ghanaians developed their unique art ofadinkra printing. Hand-printed and hand-embroidered adinkra clothes were made and used exclusively by royalty for devotional ceremonies. Each of the motifs that make up thecorpus of adinkra symbolism has a name and meaning derived from a proverb, a historical event, human attitude,ethology,plant life-form, or shapes of inanimate and man-made objects. The meanings of the motifs may be categorised into aesthetics, ethics, human relations, and concepts.[240] The Adinkra symbols have a decorative function as tattoos but also represent objects that encapsulate evocative messages that convey traditional wisdom, aspects of life, or the environment. There are many symbols with distinct meanings, often linked with proverbs. In the words ofAnthony Appiah, they were one of the means in a pre-literate society for "supporting the transmission of a complex and nuanced body of practice and belief".[241]
Kente cloth, the traditional or national cloth of Ghana, is worn by most southern Ghanaian ethnic groups, including theAkan, theGa, and theEwe.
Along with theadinkra cloth, Ghanaians use many cloth fabrics for their traditional attire.[242] The different ethnic groups have their own individual cloth. The most well known is theKente cloth.[242] Kente is a very important national costume and clothing, and these clothes are used to make traditional and modern Kente attire.[242] Different symbols and different colours mean different things.[242]Kente is the most famous of all the Ghanaian clothes.[242] Kente is a ceremonial cloth hand-woven on a horizontaltreadle loom and strips measuring about 4 inches wide are sewn together into larger pieces of cloths.[242] Cloths come in various colours, sizes and designs and are worn during very important social and religious occasions.[242] In a cultural context, kente is more important than just a cloth as it is a visual representation of history and also a form of written language through weaving.[242] The term kente has its roots in the Akan wordkɛntɛn which means a basket and the first kente weavers used raffia fibres to weave cloths that looked like kenten (a basket); and thus were referred to askenten ntoma; meaning basket cloth.[242] Kente is also woven by the Ewe people (Ewe Kente) in the Volta Region. The main weaving centres are Agortime area and Agbozume. Agbozume has a vibrant kente market attracting patrons from all over west Africa and the diaspora.[242]
Contemporary Ghanaian men's fashion with Kente and other traditional styles
Contemporary Ghanaian women's fashion with African print/Ankara and other fabrics
Contemporary Ghanaian fashion includes traditional and modern styles and fabrics and has made its way into the African and global fashion scene. The cloth known asAfrican print fabric was created out of Dutch wax textiles. It is believed that in the late 19th century, Dutch ships on their way to Asia stocked with machine-made textiles that mimicked Indonesianbatik stopped at many West African ports on the way. The fabrics did not do well in Asia. However, in West Africa—mainly Ghana where there was an already established market for cloths and textiles—the client base grew and it was changed to include local and traditional designs, colours and patterns to cater to the taste of the new consumers.[243] Today outside of Africa it is called "Ankara", and it has a client base well beyond Ghana and Africa as a whole. It is popular among Caribbean peoples andAfrican Americans; celebrities such asSolange Knowles and her sisterBeyoncé have been seen wearing African print attire.[244] Many designers from countries in North America and Europe are now using African prints, and they have gained a global interest.[245] British luxury fashion houseBurberry created a collection around Ghanaian styles.[246] Internationally acclaimed Ghanaian-British designerOzwald Boateng introduced African print suits in his 2012 collection.[247]
Music incorporates types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles,Akan Drum,goje fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the AkanSeperewa, the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and logxylophones used in asonko music.[248] Afro-jazz — "the reuniting of African-American jazz with its African roots"[249] — was created byKofi Ghanaba.[250] A form of secular music calledhighlife originated in the 19th and 20th centuries and spread throughout West Africa.[248]
In the 1990s, a genre of music was created incorporating the influences of highlife, Afro-reggae,dancehall andhip hop.[248] This hybrid was calledhiplife.[248]
Mass media, news and information provided by television.
Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guaranteesfreedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship.[253] Post-independence, private outlets closed during the military governments, and media laws prevented criticism of government.[254] Press freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of Kufuor, the tensions between the private media and government decreased. Kufuor supported press freedom and repealed alibel law, and maintained that the media had to act responsibly.[255] The media have been described as "one of the most unfettered" in Africa.[256]
There are two types of construction: the series of adjacent buildings in an enclosure around a common, and the round huts with grass roof.[257] The round huts with grass roof architecture are situated in the northern regions, while the series of adjacent buildings are in the southern regions.Postmodern architecture andhigh-tech architecture buildings are in the southern regions, while heritage sites are evident in the more than 30 forts and castles in the country, such asFort William andFort Amsterdam. Ghana has museums that are situated inside castles, and two are situated inside a fort.[258] TheMilitary Museum and theNational Museum organise temporary exhibitions.[258]
Ghana has museums that allow an in-depth look at specific regions, with a number of museums providing insight into the traditions and history of the geographical areas.[258] TheCape Coast Castle Museum and St. Georges Castle (Elmina Castle) Museum offer guided tours. TheMuseum of Science and Technology provides its visitors with a look into the domain of scientific development.[258]
Ghana competes in theCommonwealth Games, sending athletes in every edition since1954 (except for the1986 games). Ghana has won 57 medals at the Commonwealth Games, including 15 gold, with all but one of their medals coming in athletics and boxing. The country has also produced a number of boxers, includingAzumah Nelson a three-time world champion,[261][262]Nana Yaw Konadu also a three-time world champion,[262]Ike Quartey,[262] andJoshua Clottey.[262]
^"Language and Religion". Ghana Embassy.Archived from the original on 1 March 2017. Retrieved8 January 2017.English is the official language of Ghana and is universally used in schools in addition to nine other local languages. The most widely spoken local languages are Dagbani, Ewe, Ga and Twi.
^ab"Immigration into Ghana Since 1990"(PDF). Regional Institute for Population Studies (RIPS), University of Ghana, Legon. 2012. Retrieved11 November 2013.
^Warren, Dennis M. (1975).The Techiman-Bono of Ghana: An Ethnography of an Akan Society. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. p. 5.ISBN978-0-8403-1122-1.
^Konadu, Kwasi (2016). "Quest for the River, Creation of the Path". In Kwasi Konadu; Clifford C. Campbell (eds.).The Ghana Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Durham: Duke University Press. pp. 30–35.
^Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. (1975),Chronology of World History: A Calendar of Principal Events from 3000 BC to AD 1973, Part 1973,Rowman & Littlefield,ISBN0-87471-765-5.
^Ashanti Kingdom, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009, Archived 31 October 2009.
^Gyimah-Boadi, Emmanuel, "The 2008 Freedom House Survey: Another Step Forward for Ghana."Journal of Democracy 20.2 (2009): 138–152excerpt.Archived 18 August 2022 at theWayback Machine.
^Daly, Samuel Fury Childs (30 July 2022). "Ghana Must Go: Nativism and the Politics of Expulsion in West Africa, 1969–1985".Past & Present (259):229–261.doi:10.1093/pastj/gtac006.ISSN0031-2746.
Kuada, John, and Chachah Yao,Ghana. Understanding the People and their Culture (Woeli Publishing Services, 1999)
Miescher, Stephan F,Making Men in Ghana (Indiana University Press, 2005)
Milne, June,Kwame Nkrumah, A Biography (Panaf Books, 2006)
Nkrumah, Kwame,Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah (International Publishers, 1971)
Utley, Ian,Ghana – Culture Smart!: the essential guide to customs & culture (Kuperard, 2009)
Various,Ghana: An African Portrait Revisited (Peter E. Randall Publisher, 2007)
Younge, Paschal Yao,Music and Dance Traditions of Ghana: History, Performance and Teaching (Mcfarland & Co Inc., 2011)
Burke, Laura; Armando García Schmidt (2013).Ghana: Staying on Track in a Challenging Environment. Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung, Gütersloh. pp. 127–147.ISBN978-3-86793-491-6.
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