Gerald of Wales | |
|---|---|
 Statue inSt Davids Cathedral | |
| Born | Gerald de Barri c. 1146 Manorbier Castle,Pembrokeshire, Wales |
| Died | c. 1223 (age about 77) probablyHereford, England |
| Occupation | Clergyman |
| Language | Latin |
| Nationality | Cambro-Norman |
| Alma mater | University of Paris |
| Notable works | Topographia Hibernica Itinerarium Cambriae Descriptio Cambriae De principis instructione |
Gerald of Wales (Latin:Giraldus Cambrensis;Welsh:Gerallt Cymro;French:Gerald de Barri;c. 1146 – c. 1223) was aCambro-Norman priest andhistorian. As a royal clerk to the king and two archbishops, he travelled widely and wrote extensively. He studied and taught in France and visited Rome several times, meeting the Pope. He was nominated for several bishoprics but turned them down in the hope of becomingBishop of St Davids, but was unsuccessful despite considerable support. His final post was asArchdeacon of Brecon, from which he retired to academic study for the remainder of his life. Much of his writing survives.
Bornc. 1146 atManorbier Castle inPembrokeshire, Wales, Gerald was of mixedNorman andWelsh descent. Gerald was the youngest son of William Fitz Odo de Barry (or Barri), the common ancestor of theDe Barry family ofBarry,Glamorganshire, who subsequently invaded Ireland, a retainer ofArnulf de Montgomery andGerald de Windsor, and one of the most powerfulAnglo-Normanbarons in Wales.[1] His mother was Angharad FitzGerald, a daughter ofGerald FitzWalter of Windsor,[citation needed] Constable ofPembroke Castle, and his wifeNest ferch Rhys, daughter ofRhys ap Tewdwr, the last King ofSouth Wales. Through his mother Angharad, Gerald was a nephew ofDavid FitzGerald, Bishop of St Davids, as well as a great-nephew ofGruffydd ap Rhys, the son and heir of Rhys ap Tewdwr, and a cousin ofRhys ap Gruffydd, the famous Arglwydd (Lord) Rhys and his family.
Gerald received his initial education at the Benedictine house ofGloucester, followed by a period of study in Paris fromc. 1165–74, where he studied thetrivium. He was employed byRichard of Dover, the Archbishop of Canterbury, on various ecclesiastical missions in Wales, and distinguished himself by his efforts to remove supposed abuses ofconsanguinity and tax laws flourishing in the Welsh church at the time. He was appointed in 1174 asArchdeacon of Brecon, to which was attached a residence atLlanddew. He obtained this position by reporting the existence of the previous archdeacon's mistress; the man was promptly dismissed. While administering this post, Gerald collected tithes of wool and cheese from the populace; the income from the archdeaconry supported him for many years.
Upon the death of his uncle, the Bishop ofSt Davids, in 1176, the chapter nominated Gerald as his successor. St Davids had the long-term aim of becoming independent of Canterbury, and the chapter may have thought that Gerald was the man to take up its cause. KingHenry II of England, fresh from his struggle with ArchbishopThomas Becket, promptly rejected Gerald in favour ofPeter de Leia, one of his Norman retainers, possibly because Gerald's Welsh blood and ties to the ruling family ofDeheubarth made him seem like a troublesome prospect. According to Gerald, the king said at the time: "It is neither necessary nor expedient for king or archbishop that a man of great honesty or vigour should become Bishop of St Davids, for fear thatthe Crown and Canterbury should suffer thereby. Such an appointment would only give strength to the Welsh and increase their pride." The chapter acquiesced in the decision, and Gerald, disappointed with the result, withdrew to theUniversity of Paris. Fromc. 1179-8,[clarification needed] he studied and taught canon law and theology. He returned to England and spent an additional five years studying theology. In 1180, he received a minor appointment from the Bishop of St Davids, which he soon resigned.[1]
Gerald became a royal clerk and chaplain to King Henry II of England in 1184, first acting as a mediator between the crown and PrinceRhys ap Gruffydd. He was chosen to accompany one of the king's sons,John, in1185 onJohn's first expedition to Ireland. This was the catalyst for his literary career; his workTopographia Hibernica (first circulated in manuscript in 1188, and revised at least four times) is an account of his journey to Ireland; Gerald always referred to it as hisTopography, though "history" is the more accurate term.[2]
He followed it up, shortly afterwards, with an account of Henry's conquest of Ireland, theExpugnatio Hibernica. Both works were revised and added to several times before his death, and display a notable degree of Latin learning, as well as a great deal of prejudice against foreign people. Gerald was proud to be related to some of the Norman invaders of Ireland, such as his maternal uncleRobert FitzStephen andRaymond FitzGerald, and his influential account, which portrays the Irish as barbaric savages, gives important insight into Cambro-Norman views of Ireland and the history of the invasion.[3]
Having thus demonstrated his usefulness, Gerald was selected to accompany theArchbishop of Canterbury,Baldwin of Forde, on a tour of Wales in 1188, the object being a recruitment campaign for theThird Crusade. His account of that journey, theItinerarium Cambriae (1191) was followed by theDescriptio Cambriae in 1194.
His two works on Wales remain very valuable historical documents, useful for their descriptions (however untrustworthy and inflected by ideology, whimsy, and his unique style) of Welsh and Norman culture. It is uncertain whether Gerald was aWelsh speaker; although he quotes Welsh proverbs and appears familiar with the language, he seems not to have been employed as an interpreter for the expedition.[4]
As a royal clerk, Gerald observed significant political events first-hand and was offered appointments as bishoprics[clarification needed] ofWexford and Leighlin, and apparently, slightly later, the bishopric ofOssory and the archbishopric ofCashel, and later the bishopric ofBangor in Wales; and, in 1191, that ofLlandaff.[1] He turned them all down, possibly in the hope of landing a more prominent bishopric in the future. He was acquainted withWalter Map, whose career shares some similarities with Gerald's. Retiring from royal service, he lived in Lincoln fromc. 1196 to 1198, when his friend,William de Montibus, was chancellor of the cathedral. In this period,De principis instructione was probably the first written, a useful historical source of contemporary events. It was an influential work at the time, spreading, for example, the legend ofMacAlpin's treason. Here, Gerald is frequently critical of the rule of theAngevin kings, a shift from his earlier praise ofHenry II in theTopographia. He also wrote a life of StHugh of Lincoln.[citation needed]
On the death of Peter de Leia in 1198, the chapter of St Davids again nominated Gerald for the bishopric, butHubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, refused confirmation. Representatives of the canons followed Richard I to France, but before they could interview him, he died; his successor, King John, received them kindly and granted them permission to hold an election. They were unanimous in their selection of Gerald, and Gerald acted as bishop-elect for much of the next four years; and, as Hubert still refused to confirm the election, Gerald started for Rome to have his election confirmed. There he had an interview withPope Innocent III. He visited Rome on three occasions (1199–1200; 1201; 1202–3) in support of his claims. But in 1198, the archbishop had forestalled him, and his agents in Rome undermined Gerald's case; and as the pope was not convinced that St David's was independent of Canterbury, Gerald's mission failed. Gerald had pleaded not only his own cause, but that of St Davids as aMetropolitan archbishopric (and thus of the same status as Canterbury) reviving the earlier claims ofRhygyfarch andBishop Bernard of St Davids. It was in connexion with this cause that he wrote his booksDe jure Menevensis Ecclesiâ andDe Rebus a Se Gestis. Gerald returned, and his cause was now supported by the Princes of Wales, most notablyLlywelyn the Great, andGruffydd ap Rhys II, while King John, frequently in conflict with the Welsh, warmly espoused the cause of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1202, Gerald was accused of stirring up the Welsh to rebellion and was put on trial, but the trial came to nothing as the principal judges were absent. After this long struggle, the chapter of St David's deserted Gerald, and having been obliged to leave Wales, he fled to Rome. The ports had been closed against him, so he travelled in secret. In April 1203 Pope Innocent III annulled both elections, and Geoffrey of Henlaw was appointed to the See of St Davids, despite the strenuous exertions of Gerald. Travelling back to France, he was briefly imprisoned there for these actions. He was afterwards reconciled with the king and was forced to vow never again to support the primacy of St Davids over Canterbury. The expenses of his unsuccessful election were paid by the crown. Gerald maintained his appointment had been prevented by fear of its possible effect on national politics in Wales. He famously complained in a letter to Innocent III, "Because I am a Welshman am I to be debarred from all preferments in Wales? On the same reasoning so would an Englishman in England, a Frenchman in France, and Italian in Italy. But I am sprung from the Princes of Wales and the Barons of the Marches, and when I see injustice in either race I hate it."[5] At this point he resigned his position as archdeacon of Brecon.
Gerald spent the remainder of his life in academic study, most probably in Lincoln, producing works of devotional instruction and politics, and revising the works on Ireland and Wales he had written earlier in his life. He spent two years (1204–6) in Ireland with his relatives and made a fourth visit to Rome, purely as a pilgrimage, in 1206. The controversy over St Davids soured his relationship with the crown. In 1216, a baronial plan to putLouis VIII of France on the throne of England in theFirst Barons' War was warmly welcomed by him. He died in about 1223 in his 77th year, probably inHereford, and he is, according to some accounts, buried atSt Davids Cathedral.[6]
There is a statue, byHenry Poole of Gerald inCity Hall, Cardiff, and he was included in the vote on100 Welsh Heroes for hisDescriptio Cambriae andItinerarium Cambriae. His reputation in Ireland, due to his negative portrayal of the Irish, is much less friendly.
Gerald's writings in good-quality Latin, based on a thorough knowledge of Classical authors, reflect experiences gained on his travels as well as his great knowledge of the standard authorities. He was respected as a scholar in his time and afterwards. The noted scholarEdward Augustus Freeman, in hisNorman Conquest, said he was "the father of comparative philology," and in the preface to the last volume of Gerald's works in the Rolls Series, he calls him "one of the most learned men of a learned age," "the universal scholar."[7] His writings were prolific, running to about ten volumes in modern printed editions. Gerald was a man of strong opinions whose works are frequentlypolemical, including bitter attacks on his enemies, but he also had an intense curiosity, recording much valuable detail of everyday life in his ethnographic works.
It is generally agreed today that his most distinguished works are those dealing with Wales and Ireland, with his two books on his beloved Wales the most important:Itinerarium Cambriae andDescriptio Cambriae which tell us much about Welsh history and geography and reflect on thecultural relationship between the Welsh and the English. Gerald, despite his desire for an independent Welsh Church and admiration for parts of Welsh life, was very loyal toNorman Marcher rule, regarding the Normans as more civilised than the Welsh, a feeling reflected in his writings. Professor Davies tells us that Gerald, whom he calls "an admirable story-teller", is the only source for some of the most famous of the Welsh folk tales including the declaration of the old man ofPencader to Henry II which concludesDescriptio Cambriae:
This nation, O King, may now, as in former times, be harassed, and in a great measure weakened and destroyed by your and other powers, and it will also prevail by its laudable exertions, but it can never be totally subdued through the wrath of man, unless the wrath of God shall concur. Nor do I think that any other nation than this of Wales, nor any other language, whatever may hereafter come to pass, shall on the day of severe examination before the Supreme Judge, answer for this corner of the earth.
It was Gerald who also wrote (of the Welsh) that "If they would be inseparable, they would be insuperable", and that, unlike the English hirelings, who fight for power or to procure gain or wealth, the Welsh patriots fight for their country. He had pleasant things to say about the poetic talents of his people, too:
In their rhymed songs and set speeches they are so subtle and ingenious that they produce, in their native tongue, ornaments of wonderful and exquisite invention both in the words and the sentences... They make use ofalliteration in preference to all other ornaments ofrhetoric, and that particular kind which joins byconsonancy the first letters or syllables of words.
Gerald could not have predicted the later perfection ofcynghanedd, the complex system of sound correspondence that has characterised the strict-metre poetry of the Welsh for so many centuries and that is still practised today, especially in competitions for theeisteddfod chair.Cynghanedd did not become a formal system with strict rules until the fourteenth century, but its uniquely Welsh forms had been honed for centuries before that.
Finally, inDescriptio Cambriae, Gerald penned the following words that give so much pride to Welsh singers of today, especially those who participate in the immensely popularcymanfaoedd canu (hymn-singing festivals) held throughout Wales and North America:
In their musical concerts they do not sing in unison like the inhabitants of other countries, but in many different parts... You will hear as many different parts and voices as there are performers, who all at length unite with organic melody.
Another part of the above work,[8] however, is less positive. As Gerald puts it, "an attention to order now requires that, in this second part, we should employ our pen in pointing out those particulars in which it seems to transgress the line of virtue and commendation".David Powel published an abridged version ofItinerarium Cambriae andDescriptio Cambriae in 1585, omitting Gerald's negative comments about the Welsh. Due to translations into English, the first being done bySir Richard Colt Hoare, Bart., and other translations such as inEveryman's Library andPenguin Classics, Gerald's works on Wales are well known today.
In Gerald's writing on Ireland, his love of music is very evident, too.
Chapter XI of Distinction III (Topographia Hibernica, Of the incomparable skill of the Irish in playing upon musical instruments): The only thing to which I find that this people apply a commendable industry is playing upon musical instruments; in which they are incomparably more skilful than any other nation I have ever seen. For their modulation on these instruments, unlike that of the Britons to which I am accustomed, is not slow and harsh, but lively and rapid, while the harmony is both sweet and gay. It is astonishing that in so complex and rapid a movement of the fingers, the musical proportions can be preserved........ it must be remarked, however, that both Scotland and Wales strive to rival Ireland in the art of music......[9]
Gerald's works on Ireland, although invaluable for their detail, are tremendously biased, and have been extensively criticised by writers such asStephen White. The following passage from hisTopographia Hibernica demonstrates one example of vehementanti-Irish sentiment that reverberates throughout Gerald's works:
Distinction III *Chapter XXXV (Of the number of persons in this nation who have bodily defects): Moreover, I have never seen in any other nation so many individuals who were born blind, so many lame, maimed or having some natural defect. The persons of those who are well-formed are indeed remarkably fine, nowhere better; but as those who are favoured with the gifts of nature grow up exceedingly handsome, those from whom she withholds them are frightfully ugly. No wonder if among an adulterous and incestuous people, in which both births and marriages are illegitimate, a nation out of the pale of the laws, nature herself should be foully corrupted by perverse habits. It should seem that by the just judgements of God, nature sometimes produces such objects, contrary to her own laws, in order that those who will not regard Him duly by the light of their own consciences, should often have to lament their privations of the exterior and bodily gift of sight.[10]
Gerald was a keen and observant student of natural history, but the value of his observations is lessened by credulity and the inability to distinguish fact from legend. He gives a vivid and accurate description of the last colony of theEurasian beaver in Wales on theTeifi, but spoils it by repeating the legend that beavers castrate themselves to avoid danger.[11] Likewise, he gives a good description of anosprey fishing, but adds the mythical detail that the bird has one webbed foot.[12] His description of Irish wildlife has been the subject of much adverse comment for its inaccuracies and lapses into fiction[13] but nonetheless, despite its faults, some have argued that it gives an important glimpse of Irish fauna in the 1180s.[13] Certainly the book has valuable details about Irish birds: while thecommon kingfisher is now common in Ireland, Gerald states clearly that it was not found there in his time: on the other hand thewhite-throated dipper, which he had evidently not seen before, was very common in Ireland.[14] He also observed the great numbers ofbirds of prey in Ireland, including thegolden eagle and theEurasian sparrowhawk, which he said were more numerous in Ireland than in England.[12]
