Thereafter and throughout theearly modern period, Georgians became politically fractured and were locked in conflict with much larger Muslim empires to its south, like theOttoman Empire and successivedynasties of Iran. Georgians started looking for allies and found the Russians on the political horizon as a possible replacement for the lostByzantine Empire "for the sake of the Christian faith".[15] The Georgian kings andRussian tsars exchanged no less than 17 embassies,[16] culminating in 1783 whenHeraclius II of the eastern Georgian kingdom ofKartli-Kakheti forgedan alliance with theRussian Empire. However, the Russo-Georgian alliance backfired as Russia was unwilling to fulfill the terms of the treaty, proceeding toannex Georgia in a piecemeal manner throughout the 1800s.[17][18] Georgians reasserted their independence from Russia under theFirst Georgian Republic from 1918 to 1921 and finallyin 1991 from theSoviet Union.
The Georgian nation was formed out of a diverse set of geographic subgroups, each with its characteristic traditions, manners,dialects and, in the case ofSvans andMingrelians, own regional languages. The Georgian language has its ownunique writing system and extensive written tradition dating back to the 5th century. According to unofficial estimates from theState Ministry on Diaspora Issues of Georgia, there are about 5 million Georgians in the world.[19]
Anexonymic term "Georgian" resulted from the merger ofPersian designation "gurğ" (wolf), with the cult ofSaint George popular among the Georgians.[20] The saint's name played a definite role in the transformation of "gurğ/gorg" into "Georgia/Georgian".[21] The earliest known example for anendonym"kartveli"[d] (ႵႠႰႧႥႤႪႨ) was found as an archaeological artifact in the neighborhood ofUmm Leisun, nearby Jerusalem.[22]
The term "Georgians" is derived from the country of Georgia. In the past, lore-based theories were given by the medieval French travellerJacques de Vitry, who explained the name's origin by the popularity ofSt. George amongst Georgians,[30] while travellerJean Chardin thought that "Georgia" came from Greekγεωργός ("tiller of the land"), as when the Greeks came into the region (inColchis[27]) they encountered a developed agricultural society.[27]
However, asAlexander Mikaberidze adds, these explanations for the wordGeorgians/Georgia are rejected by the scholarly community, who point to thePersian wordgurğ/gurğān ("wolf"[31]) as the root of the word.[32] Starting with the Persian wordgurğ/gurğān, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages.[27][33] This term itself might have been established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region, which was referred to asGorgan ("land of the wolves"[34]).[27]
Most historians, as well as anthropologists, archaeologists, and linguists, agree that the ancestors of modern Georgians inhabited thesouthern Caucasus and northernAnatolia since theNeolithic period.[35] These peoples are usually referred to as Proto-Kartvelian tribes, including early groups such as Colchians and Iberians.[36]
The formation of these early kingdoms contributed to the consolidation of the Georgian nation.[40] The Jewish historianJosephus mentions Georgians asIberes, also calledThobel (Tubal).[36]David Marshall Lang argued that the rootTibar gave rise toIber, leading the Greeks to use the termIberian for eastern Georgians.[41]
Tribes such asDiauehi (inAssyria) andTaochi (in Greek sources) lived in northeasternAnatolia and are considered ancestors of the Georgians.[42] Modern Georgians still refer to this region asTao-Klarjeti, part of present-day Turkey, where some Georgian-speaking communities persist.[43]
Colchians, first mentioned in the annals ofTiglath-Pileser I andUrartian kingSarduri II, included western Georgian tribes such as theMeskhetians, while Iberians (or Tiberians/Tiberanians) lived in eastern Georgia.[44] Both played a crucial role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the Georgian nation.[45] According to the scholar of the Caucasian studiesCyril Toumanoff:
Colchis appears as the first Caucasian state to have achieved the coalescence of the newcomer. Colchis can be justly regarded as a Georgian (West Georgian) kingdom… It would seem natural to seek the beginnings of Georgian social history in Colchis, the earliest Georgian formation.[46]
In eastern Georgia, during the 6th–4th centuries BCE, Kartlian tribes consolidated power around Mtskheta, founding the Kingdom of Kartli (Iberia) underPharnavaz I and establishing theParnavazid dynasty.[47]
Colchis later became the Roman province ofLazicum under Romanlegati, while Iberia accepted Roman protection. By the 3rd century CE, theLaz people established the kingdom ofLazica (Egrisi), lasting until 562 CE.[48]
The Kingdom of Iberia adoptedChristianity underKing Mirian III (traditionally 324), withSt. Nino credited for the conversion.[49][50] By the mid-4th century, both Lazica and Iberia were officially Christian, aligning withByzantine Empire culture. Persian rule later introducedZoroastrianism alongside Christianity in some regions.[51]
KingVakhtang I Gorgasali restored Iberian statehood and promoted independence, though subsequent rulers were sometimes Persian vassals, and the kingdom was occasionally governed byMarzban. By the late 7th century, Byzantine-Persian rivalry declined, paving the way forArab conquest.[52]
The decline of centralized authority created conditions for the rise of theBagrationi dynasty in the 9th century.Ashot I (r. 813–830) consolidated power inTao-Klarjeti and extended his influence over Iberia, earning recognition from both theAbbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire. Later,Adarnase IV succeeded in unifying most Georgian territories and was crownedKing of the Iberians in888.[55]
In western Georgia, theKingdom of Abkhazia gradually unified local tribes during the 8th century and expanded intoIberia in the 9th–10th centuries.[56] However, persistent dynastic disputes, rival noble factions, and internal instability gradually weakened the Abkhazian monarchy.
Meanwhile, in southern Georgia,David III of Tao emerged as a dominant regional ruler, advocating for the political unification of Georgian territories. Recognizing the potential for consolidation, he supported the youngBagrat III, who held hereditary claims to multiple Georgian thrones.[57] Through a combination of military campaigns, diplomatic alliances, and dynastic legitimacy, Bagrat III successfully unified the principal Georgian polities. In 1008, he was crowned as the first king of aunified Georgia, marking the establishment of a consolidated Georgian state that would later achieve significant cultural and political prominence.[57]
During the 11th century, Georgia faced internal noble conflicts and Byzantine interference, but both the Georgian and Byzantine states opposed the expansion of theSeljuk Empire. After theBattle of Manzikert in 1071, Georgia assumed control over eastern Anatolia and led military campaigns against Turkish forces throughout the 1080s.
Georgia reached its political and cultural zenith in the 12th and early 13th centuries under the reigns ofDavid IV (r. 1089–1125) andTamar (r. 1184–1213), a period commonly referred to as theGeorgian Golden Age.[58][59][60][61]
Tamar further strengthened the Georgian state, earning the title of "king of kings". She neutralized internal opposition, expanded Georgian territories into present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, eastern Turkey, and northern Iran, and established theEmpire of Trebizond as a vassal state.[63]
The decline of the Georgian kingdom began afterJalal ad-Din captured Tbilisi in 1226,[64] followed by theMongol invasions.George V the Brilliant (r. 1314–1346) later restored political unity and revitalized Christian culture. However, subsequentTimurid invasions and persistentinternal conflicts hindered full consolidation of the kingdom, ultimately contributing to its fragmentation in the 15th century.[65]
The Kingdom of Georgiacollapsed into anarchy by 1466 and fragmented into three independent kingdoms and five semi-independentprincipalities. Neighboring empires exploited this division, and from the 16th century, Ottoman and Iranian forces dominated western and eastern Georgia, respectively.[66] Georgian rulers sought ties with Russia: in 1649, theKingdom of Imereti sent ambassadors, andAlexander III of Imereti swore allegiance to TsarAlexis of Russia.[67] Subsequent rulers also sought assistance from PopeInnocent XII but without success.[68]
In 1783, theTreaty of Georgievsk made Eastern Georgia a Russian protectorate, guaranteeing the Bagrationi dynasty’s rule in exchange for Russian control over foreign affairs.[71]
Russia failed to defend Georgia in 1795 whenIran sacked Tbilisi.[72] Although Russia launched apunitive campaign, it later annexed Eastern Georgia in 1801, abolished the Bagrationi dynasty, and ended theautocephaly of theGeorgian Orthodox Church.Pyotr Bagration, a Bagrationi descendant, later became a prominent Russian general in the Napoleonic wars.[73]
Modern history
19th century Georgian noble family: General Solomon Makashvili and family around 1900
Russian authorities sought to integrate Georgia into their empire, but early rule was arbitrary and insensitive to local laws and customs, provoking aconspiracy by Georgian nobles in 1832 and the1841 Gurian revolt by peasants and nobles.[74]
Many Georgians were upset by the loss of independence of theGeorgian Orthodox Church. The Russian clergy took control of Georgian churches and monasteries, prohibiting use of the Georgian liturgy and desecrating medieval Georgian frescoes on various churches all across Georgia.[75]
The late 19th century saw a Georgian literary revival. Chavchavadze excelled in poetry, novels, short stories, and essays.Akaki Tsereteli became known as "the immortal nightingale of the Georgian people." Alongside Niko Nikoladze and Iakob Gogebashvili, these figures were central to the modern Georgian cultural renaissance.
In October 1990, the first multi-partyelections were held in Soviet Georgia, which were the first multi-party elections in the entire Soviet Union in which the opposition groups were registered as formal political parties.[79] TheRound Table—Free Georgia coalition, led by Zviad Gamsakhurdia, secured victory in this election and formed a new government. On 9 April 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, theSupreme Council of Georgiadeclared independence [ka] after areferendum held on 31 March.[80]
An FTDNA collection of Georgian Y-DNA suggests that Georgians have the highest percentage ofHaplogroup G (39.9%) among the general population recorded in any country. Georgians'Y-DNA also belongs toHaplogroup J (32.5%),R1b (8.6%),L (5.4%),R1a (4.2%),I2 (3.8%) and other more minor haplogroups such asE,T, andQ.[81]
Georgian is the primary language for Georgians of all backgrounds, including those who speak otherKartvelian languages:Svans,Mingrelians, and theLaz. The language known today as Georgian is a traditional language of the eastern part of the country, which spread to most of present-day Georgia after the post-Christianization centralization in the first millennium CE. Today, Georgians, regardless of their ancestral region, use Georgian as their official language. The regional languagesSvan andMingrelian are languages of the west that were traditionally spoken in the pre-ChristianKingdom of Colchis but later lost importance as the unifiedKingdom of Georgia emerged. Their decline is largely due to the capital of the unified kingdom,Tbilisi, being in the eastern part of the country known as theKingdom of Iberia, effectively making the language of the east the official language of the Georgian monarch.
Gelati Monastery, one of the most significant religious structures in Georgia, located near the former capital city ofKutaisi.
According to Orthodox tradition,Christianity was first preached in Georgia by theApostles Simon and Andrew in the 1st century. It became the state religion ofKartli (Iberia) in 319[83] or 326.[84][85][86][87] At the same time, in the first centuries A.D., the cult ofMithras,pagan beliefs, andZoroastrianism were commonly practiced in Georgia.[88] The conversion of Kartli to Christianity is credited toSt. Nino ofCappadocia. Christianity gradually replaced all the former religions except Zoroastrianism, which become a second established religion in Iberia after thePeace of Acilisene in 378.[89] The conversion to Christianity eventually placed the Georgians permanently on the front line of conflict between the Islamic and Christian world. Georgians remained mostly Christian despite repeated invasions by Muslim powers, and long episodes of foreign domination.
As was true elsewhere, the Christian church in Georgia was crucial to the development of a written language, and most of the earliest written works were religious texts.Medieval Georgian culture was greatly influenced byEastern Orthodoxy and theGeorgian Orthodox Church, which promoted and often sponsored the creation of many works of religious devotion. These included churches and monasteries, works of art such asicons, andhagiographies of Georgian saints.
Today, 83.9% of the Georgian population, most of whom are ethnic Georgian, follow Eastern Orthodox Christianity.[90] A sizable GeorgianMuslim population exists inAdjara. This autonomous Republic borders Turkey, and was part of theOttoman Empire for a longer amount of time than other parts of the country. Those Georgian Muslims practice the SunniHanafi form of Islam. Islam has however declined in Adjara during the 20th century, due to Soviet anti-religious policies, cultural integration with the national Orthodox majority, and strong missionary efforts by the Georgian Orthodox Church.[91] In the early modern period, converted Georgian recruits were often used by the Persian and Ottoman Empires for elite military units such as theMameluks,Qizilbash, andghulams. TheIranian Georgians are all reportedly Shia Muslims today, whileIngiloy (indigenous to Azerbaijan),Laz (indigenous to Turkey),Imerkhevians (indigenous to Turkey), andGeorgians in Turkey (who descend from Georgian immigrants) are mostlySunni Muslim.
In addition to traditional religious confessions, Georgia retainsirreligious segments of society, as well as a significant portion of nominally religious individuals who do not actively practice their faith.[92]
TheGeorgian cuisine is specific to the country; however, it also contains some influences from otherEuropean culinary traditions, as well as those from the surrounding Western Asia. Each historical province of Georgia has its own distinct culinary tradition, such as Megrelian, Kakhetian, and Imeretian cuisines. In addition to various meat dishes, Georgian cuisine also offers a variety of vegetarian meals.
The importance of both food and drink toGeorgian culture is best observed during a Caucasian feast, orsupra, when a huge assortment of dishes is prepared, always accompanied by large amounts of wine, and dinner can last for hours. In a Georgian feast, the role of thetamada (toastmaster) is an important and honoured position.
In countries of the formerSoviet Union, Georgian food is popular due to the immigration of Georgians to other Soviet republics, in particular Russia. In Russia all major cities have many Georgian restaurants and Russian restaurants often feature Georgian food items on their menu.[93]
Georgia has a long-established tradition ofpolyphonic singing, often regarded as one of the earliest polyphonic cultures in the Christian world. The country’s folk repertoire is usually divided into fifteen or sixteen regional musical dialects.[94] In eastern Georgia (Kartli,Kakheti,Mtiuleti) table songs typically feature a sustained drone in the bass with two ornamented upper voices; the best-known example is "Chakrulo". Western regions (Imereti,Svaneti,Racha,Mingrelia,Guria,Adjara) preserve various forms of contrapuntal polyphony. Gurian singing is noted for its highly developed three- and four-part textures and the characteristicKrimanchuli, a local variety of yodeling.[95]
Georgian scale systems often rely on combinations of perfect fourths and fifths,[100] producing interval structures that diverge from Western equal temperament. Non-tempered intonation has survived most consistently inSvaneti.
From early gramophone recordings preserved byAnzor Erkomaishvili to the emergence of large Soviet-era choirs and postwar ensembles such asRustavi and Georgian Voices, Georgian polyphony has gained international visibility. From the 1960s onward, groups like Orera, and laterThe Shin, incorporated traditional material into popular and jazz-influenced idioms.[101]
The folk dances of the Georgian people have an ancient history, as evidenced by numerous historical sources and archaeological findings.[104]
Georgian tribes inhabited the eastern part of theBlack Sea coast several centuries before the adoption ofChristianity. The works of the ancient Greek geographerStrabo contain vivid descriptions of the pagan rituals of the Georgians, which included elements of dance. The arrival of Christianity introduced significant changes into the life of the population; however, many rituals were preserved and adapted to the new religion. Within these rituals, dance gradually assumed a leading role, while the religious content diminished. In this way, Georgian dances developed into an integral element of folk artistic culture.[104]
It is known that by the4th century BCE, secular music was widespread among Georgian tribes. TheColchian tribes began their battles with martial songs and dances.[104]
During themedieval period, dance became increasingly professionalized, and performances were frequently held in the palaces of kings and feudal lords. At this time, solo and paired dances underwent significant development, and canonical dance movements became firmly established.[105]
Georgian dance employs several means of self-expression. Young men seek to demonstrate strength, agility, and bravery. Male choreography is characterized by sharp and vigorous movements, including turns, leaps, jumps, and steps performed on the toes or knees. In contrast, the female dance is distinguished by smoothness and grace.[106]
In the 9th and 10th centuries,Christian theological literature flourished alongside a growing sense of Georgian national identity, exemplified by "Praise and Exaltation of the Georgian Language" byJohn Zosimus.[107]
David IV'sunification of Georgia in the 11th century marked agolden age for culture. Byzantine-influenced Christian literature thrived, and secular literature emerged, drawing on Georgian folklore as well asPersian andArabic traditions.[107] Heroic epics, love tales, and knightly adventures became prominent, with poetry as the dominant form.[107]
The reign ofQueen Tamar (AD 1184-1213) marked the pinnacle of medieval Georgian literature. This period witnessed a flourishing of literary production, withShota Rustaveli's epic poem, "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" (Vepkhistqaosani), emerging as a masterpiece.[107] Considered one of the most significant works of Georgian literature,[109] the poem narrates the adventures of Avtandil, a knight sent by Queen Tinatin on a quest to find another mysterious knight. The story unfolds with twists, culminating in a double wedding.[107]
Following Queen Tamar's reign, Georgia's political fragmentation and foreign invasions led to a decline in literary output.[107]
This vibrant literary activity was interrupted by theStalinist purges of the 1930s, which silenced many writers who were unwilling to conform tosocialist realism.[107]
The Georgians have historically been classified into various subgroups based on the geographic region which their ancestors traditionally inhabited.
Even if a member of any of these subgroups moves to a different region, they will still be known by the name of their ancestral region. For example, if aGurian moves toTbilisi (part of theKartli region) he will not automatically identify himself asKartlian despite actually living in Kartli. This may, however, change if substantial amount of time passes. For example, there are someMingrelians who have lived in theImereti region for centuries and are now identified as Imeretian or Imeretian-Mingrelians.
Last names from mountainous eastern Georgian provinces (such as Khevsureti, etc.) can be distinguished by the suffix –uri (ური), or –uli (ული). MostSvan last names typically end in –ani (ანი),Mingrelian in –ia (ია), -ua (უა), or -ava (ავა), andLaz in –shi (ში).
Laz people also may be considered Georgian based on their geographic location and religion. According to theLondon School of Economics' anthropologist Mathijs Pelkmans,[114] Lazs residing in Georgia frequently identify themselves as "first-class Georgians" to show pride, while considering their Muslim counterparts in Turkey as "Turkified Lazs".[115]
Subethnic groups
Georgian name
Settlement area
Language (dialect)
Number
Difference(s) from mainstream Georgians (other than location)
^The fresco was a demonstration of the ambitious imperial[1] example on which the Georgian monarchs modeled themselves and competed in magnificence with those ofByzantine Empire.[2]
^The total figure is merely an estimation; sum of all the referenced populations only.
^abcThe termKartveli, derived fromOld GeorgianKartueli (ႵႠႰႧႭႳႤႪႨ), originally designated inhabitants of theKingdom of Iberia and were natively known asKartvelians,[23] that stood at the political, cultural, religious and economic vanguard of the nation. Kartvelians, tracing their definitive appearance since post-Assyrian times, gradually became a dominant element in nation-building that would give its name to the whole country and people.[24] After theGeorgian unification, the term would come to signify all-Georgian enterprise, becoming absolute and universal.[25]
^Tchekhanovets, Y. (2014). Iohane, bishop of Purtavi and Caucasian Albanians in the Holy Land. In G. C. Bottini, L. D. Chrupcała, & J. Patrich (Eds.), Knowledge and Wisdom: Archaeological and Historical Essays in Honour of Leah Di Segni (Studium Biblicum Franciscanum, Collectio Maior; Vol. 54). Edizioni Terra Santa,p. 305,ISBN978-88-6240-274-3
^Peradze, Gregory. "The Pilgrims' derivation of the name Georgia".Georgica, Autumn, 1937, nos. 4 & 5, 208–209
^Hock, Hans Henrich; Zgusta, Ladislav (1997).Historical, Indo-European, and Lexicographical Studies. Walter de Gruyter. p. 211.ISBN978-3-11-012884-0.
^Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015).Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 3.ISBN978-1-4422-4146-6.However, such explanations are rejected by the scholarly community, who point to the Persian gurğ/gurğān as the root of the word (...)
^Boeder; et al. (2002).Philology, typology and language structure. Peter Lang. p. 65.ISBN978-0-8204-5991-2.The Russian designation of Georgia (Gruziya) also derives from the Persian gurg.
^Ivana Marková; Alex Gillespie, eds. (2011).Trust and Conflict: Representation, Culture and Dialogue. Cultural Dynamics of Social Representation. p. 43.ISBN978-0-415-59346-5.
^Howard Aronson; Dodona Kiziria (1999).Georgian Literature and Culture. Slavica. p. 119.ISBN978-0-89357-278-5.
^Suny, Ronald Grigor (1996).Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. DIANE Publishing. p. 184.ISBN978-0-7881-2813-4.Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved1 December 2017.The Knight in the Panther Skin occupies a unique position as the Georgian national epic.
^Tsintsadze, I. (1970).ტოლჩანოვის იმერეთში ელჩობის მუხლობრივი აღწერილობა, 1650–1652 [Notarial Account of Tolochanov’s Ambassadorship in Imereti, 1650–1652] (in Georgian). Tbilisi. pp. 37–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Sharadze, Guram (1984).ბედნიერებისა და სათნოების საუნჯე [Treasure of Happiness and Virtue] (in Georgian). Tbilisi: Soviets’ Georgia Publishing House. pp. 436–437.
^Jaoshvili, Vakhtang (1984).საქართველოს მოსახლეობა XVIII–XX საუკუნეებში: დემოგრაფიულ-გეოგრაფიული გამოკვლევა [The Population of Georgia in the 18th–20th Centuries: A Demographic-Geographical Study] (in Georgian) (1st ed.). Mecniereba. p. 72.
^Darrell Slider (1991). "Georgia's independence".Problems of Communism: November—December 1991. Vol. 15. Documentary Studies Section, International Information Administration. p. 66.The April 9 "Tragedy", as it came to be called, had a searing effect on Georgian public. The republic leadership lost what authority it had enjoyed in the eyes of Georgians, and support for independence became overwhelming— developments confirmed by polls initiated by the Communist leadership itself.
^Tuite, Kevin (1987)."The geography of Georgian q'e"(PDF).Proceedings of the International Conference on Caucasian Studies. Retrieved27 March 2007.
^Sauter, Simonia, Stephenson, Orchiston (2014).Historical Astronomy of the Caucasus: Sources from Georgia and Armenia. p. 114.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Thomas Liles, "Islam and religious transformation in Adjara", ECMI Working Paper, February 2012,[1]Archived 5 November 2015 at theWayback Machine, accessed 4 June 2012
^Garakanidze, Edisher (1991).Musical Dialects of Georgian Traditional Music. PhD dissertation, Tbilisi Theatrical Institute.
^Arakishvili, Dimitri (1908).West Georgian Folk Songs. Moscow: Commission of Music and Ethnography. (in Russian)
^Javakhishvili, Ivane (2010). "The Views and Theories of Georgian Authors". In: Rusudan Tsurtsumia & Joseph Jordania (eds.),Echoes from Georgia: Seventeen Arguments on Georgian Polyphony, pp. 19–34. New York: Nova Science.
^Arakishvili, Dimitri (1905).Short Review of the Development of Georgian (Kartlian and Kakhetian) Folk Songs. Moscow: K. Menshov. (in Russian)
^"არამატერიალური კულტურული მემკვიდრეობა" [Intangible Cultural Heritage](PDF) (in Georgian). National Agency for Cultural Heritage Preservation of Georgia. Retrieved25 October 2017.
^Gogotishvili, Vladimer (2010). "On Authentic and Plagal Types of Monotonic Scales in Georgian Traditional Vocal Polyphony". In: Tsurtsumia & Jordania (eds.),Echoes from Georgia, pp. 147–156.
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Rapp, Stephen H. Jr. (2016).The Sasanian World Through Georgian Eyes, Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature. Routledge.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
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