Following his service inWorld War I, Marshall became an aide-de-camp toArmy chief of staffJohn J. Pershing. Marshall later served on the Army staff, was the executive officer of the15th Infantry Regiment in China and was an instructor at theArmy War College. In 1927, he became assistant commandant of the Army'sInfantry School, where he modernized command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit duringWorld War II.[6] In 1932 and 1933, he commanded the8th Infantry Regiment andFort Screven,Georgia. Marshall commanded 5th Brigade,3rd Infantry Division andVancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938; he received promotion tobrigadier general. During this command, Marshall was also responsible for 35Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and Southern Washington. In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff; he later became the Army'sdeputy chief of staff. When Chief of StaffMalin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall assumed the role of Chief of Staff in an acting capacity before his appointment to the position, which he held until the war's end in 1945.[7]
As the U.S. Army's Chief of Staff, Marshall worked closely with Secretary of WarHenry L. Stimson to organize the largest military expansion in U.S. history, and was ultimately promoted tofive-star rank asGeneral of the Army. Marshall coordinated Allied operations in Europe and the Pacific until the end of the war. In addition to accolades fromWinston Churchill and other Allied leaders,Time magazine named Marshall itsMan of the Year for 1943 and 1947.[8] Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty, as required for holders of five-star rank.[9] From 15 December 1945 to January 1947, Marshall served as a special envoy to China in an unsuccessful effort to negotiate a coalition government between theNationalists ofChiang Kai-shek and theCommunists ofMao Zedong.
As Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, Marshall advocated rebuilding Europe, a program that became known as theMarshall Plan, and which led to his being awarded the 1953Nobel Peace Prize.[10] After resigning as Secretary of State, Marshall served as chairman of theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission[11] and president of theAmerican National Red Cross. As Secretary of Defense at the start of theKorean War, Marshall worked to restore the military's confidence and morale after the end of its post-World War II demobilization and then its initial buildup for combat in Korea and operations during theCold War. Resigning as Defense Secretary, Marshall retired to his home inVirginia. He died in 1959 and was buried with honors atArlington National Cemetery.[12]
George Catlett Marshall Jr. was born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, the youngest of three children born to George Catlett Marshall and Laura Emily (née Bradford) Marshall.[5][13] Both sides of his family were long fromKentucky, but cherished theirVirginia roots.[14][B] He was also a first cousin, three times removed, of formerchief justiceJohn Marshall.[15] He was also a distant cousin ofRichard J. Marshall.[16] Marshall's father was active in the coal andcoke business.[13] Later, when asked about his political allegiances, Marshall often joked that his father had been aDemocrat and his mother aRepublican, whereas he was anEpiscopalian.[17]
Marshall was educated at Miss Alcinda Thompson's private school in Uniontown and spent a year at Uniontown's Central School.[13] Having decided early in life that he desired a career in the military, but unlikely to obtain an appointment to theUnited States Military Academy because of his average grades, he looked to theVirginia Military Institute (VMI) for a formal education.[18] Marshall's brother Stuart, a VMI alumnus, believed George would not succeed and argued that their mother should not let George attend out of concern that he would "disgrace the family name."[19] Determined to "wipe his brother's face," Marshall enrolled at the age of sixteen in December 1897.[5][20] To pay for his tuition and expenses, Marshall's mother sold parcels of land she owned in Uniontown andAugusta, Kentucky.[18]
At the start of his college career, Marshall was subjected to ahazing incident in which upperclassmen positioned an unsheathed bayonet with the point up and directed him to squat over it.[21] After twenty minutes, Marshall fainted and fell.[21] When he awoke, he had a deep laceration to one of his buttocks.[21] While being treated for his injury, Marshall refused to inform on his classmates.[21] Impressed with his bravery, the hazers never bothered him again.[21]
During his years at VMI, Marshall always ranked first in military discipline and about midway academically.[5] He attained the rank of first captain, the highest a cadet could achieve, and graduated 15th of 34 in the Class of 1901.[5][22][23] Marshall received a diploma, not a degree.[23] At the time of his graduation, the top five or six VMI graduates received bachelor's degrees.[23] The rest received diplomas attesting to their status as graduates.[23] He playedoffensive tackle on thefootball team andin 1900 he was selected forAll-Southern honors.[24]
Following his graduation from VMI, Marshall served as Commandant of Students at theDanville Military Institute inDanville, Virginia.[25] He took a competitive examination for a commission in the United States Army, which had greatly expanded to deal with theSpanish–American War andPhilippine–American War.[26] Marshall passed and used endorsements his father obtained from both of Pennsylvania'sU.S. senators to bolster his application.[26] VMI SuperintendentScott Shipp also supported Marshall's application, and in a letter to PresidentWilliam McKinley compared him favorably to other VMI graduates serving in the Army, saying Marshall was "Fully the equal of the best."[27] He was commissioned asecond lieutenant ofInfantry in February 1902.[26] In a matter of days he married, resigned the Danville job, and shipped out to serve with the30th Infantry Regiment in thePhilippines.[26][28][29]
Prior toWorld War I, Marshall received various postings in the United States and the Philippines, including serving as an infantry platoon leader and company commander during thePhilippine–American War and other guerrilla uprisings.[5] He was schooled in modern warfare, including tours from 1906 to 1910 as both a student and an instructor.[30] He was ranked first of five Honor Graduates of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course (now theUnited States Army Command and General Staff College) in 1907 and graduated first in his 1908 Army Staff College (now theUnited States Army War College) class.[5] After graduating in 1908, Marshall was assigned as an instructor at theFort Leavenworth Infantry-Cavalry School.[31][32] While on the faculty, he metHunter Liggett, who was then commanding a battalion at Fort Leavenworth.[33] Though Marshall was subordinate to Liggett, Liggett volunteered to study the curriculum under Marshall's tutelage; Marshall made the lessons and practical exercises available to Liggett, critiqued Liggett's answers, then shared with him the faculty's schoolhouse solutions.[34]
Major GeneralRobert Lee Bullard (center, facing towards his right, photo's left), the newly appointed commander of the 1st Division, and members of his divisional staff atGondrecourt, France, 17 January 1918. To Bullard's right is Lieutenant Colonel George C. Marshall, the 1st Division's assistant chief of staff for operations.
Shortly after theAmerican entry into World War I in April 1917, Marshall had roles as a planner of both training and operations.[5] In the summer, he was assigned as assistant chief of staff for operations on the staff of the newly created1st Division, commanded by Major GeneralWilliam L. Sibert, a fifty-six-year-old engineer officer.[32] After overseeing the division's mobilization and organization in Texas, he departed for France with the division staff in mid-1917.[5] On the long ocean voyage, his roommate was the division's assistant chief of staff for training, MajorLesley J. McNair;[39] the two formed a personal and professional bond that they maintained for the rest of their careers.[39] Marshall was the first passenger from the first boat transportingAmerican Expeditionary Forces (AEF) soldiers to set foot in Europe, and one of the first to enter thetrenches of theWestern Front.[40]
After arriving in France, Marshall served with the 1st Division on the Saint-Mihiel, Picardy, and Cantigny fronts.[5] Although the division was designated as a Regular Army formation, most of the officers and men serving within its ranks were almost completely lacking in combat experience. They were also deficient "in training, staff work, and logistical problems. More than half of its soldiers were new recruits. Only a few of itsnon-commissioned officers had been in the Army for two years or more, and nearly all of the lieutenants had been commissioned less than six months".[41]
In late 1917, GeneralJohn J. Pershing, thecommander-in-chief (C-in-C) of the AEF, inspected the 1st Division.[42] Unimpressed by what he observed, Pershing began to berate Sibert in front of Sibert's staff. Sibert took Pershing's criticism in silence, but when Pershing turned his attention to the division chief of staff, Marshall angrily interceded to inform Pershing of logistical and administrative difficulties of which Pershing was unaware.[43] Marshall also informed Pershing that the AEF staff had not been very helpful in dealing with the problems. Sibert and his staff were concerned that Marshall's willingness to confront Pershing had probably cost him his career. Instead, Pershing began to seek out Marshall and ask for his advice whenever he visited the 1st Division,[42] which, over the winter, "completed extensive training, much of it under French tutelage". By mid-April 1918 the division, now commanded by Major GeneralRobert Lee Bullard, was deemed to have progressed enough in its training to have its own sector of the Western Front to hold.[41]
Marshall won recognition and acclaim for his planning of theBattle of Cantigny, which took place from 28 to 31 May 1918;[5] Marshall's success resulted in the first notable American victory of the war.[44] As he conducted pre-attack planning, Marshall traveled alone under cover of darkness to personally view the terrain and mentally map it.[45] Marshall ventured beyond the front lines and far intono-man's land, often under friendly artillery fire and routinely risking discovery and capture byImperial German Army troops.[45] On 26 May, he was injured while traveling to several subordinate units to conduct pre-attack coordination.[46] As he departed the division headquarters area, his horse stumbled, fell, and rolled over;[46] Marshall's left foot was caught in the stirrup, and he sustained a severe sprain and bruise.[46] A physician bound Marshall's injured ankle and foot with adhesive tape so he could avoid medical evacuation and remain with the division to oversee the attack.[47] In 1920, Marshall was awarded theCitation Star for his heroism during this battle.[45] When theSilver Star medal was created in 1932, Citation Stars were converted to the new award.[45][48][49][C]
Colonel Marshall in France in 1919
In mid-1918, Pershing brought Marshall on to the AEF operations staff, G-3, where he worked closely with Pershing and was a key planner of American operations.[5] He was instrumental in the planning and coordination of theMeuse–Argonne offensive, which contributed to the defeat of theGerman Empire on theWestern Front in 1918.[50] In August, he was assigned as assistant chief of operations (G-3) forFirst Army, which was commanded first by Pershing, then by Liggett.[51] At the end of the war, Marshall held the permanent rank ofcaptain and the temporary rank ofcolonel and was recommended for promotion to temporarybrigadier general in October 1918, but theArmistice with Germany on 11 November 1918 occurred before the recommendation was acted on.[52]
The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress, 9 July 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Colonel (Infantry) George Catlett Marshall, Jr. (ASN: 0-1616), United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. Colonel Marshall has performed the duties of Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, 1st Division, from 26 June 1917 to 12 July 1918. He served in the G-3 Section, General Headquarters, American Expeditionary Forces, from 13 July 1918 to 19 August 1918, in G-3 section, 1st Army, from 20 August 1918 to 16 October 1918; as Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, of the 1st Army from 17 October to 19 November 1918; and as Chief of Staff of the 8th Army Corps from 20 November 1918 to 15 January 1918, during which period the 1st Division served in the Toul sector and at the Cantigny attack and the 1st Army operations in the St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne offensives. By untiring, painstaking, and energetic efforts he succeeded in all these undertakings. His efforts had a marked influence on the successes achieved by the units with which he served.[49]
General of the Armies John J. Pershing and members of his staff standing outside theState, War, and Navy Building inWashington, D.C., 23 September 1919. Pershing is second from left in front row. Marshall is behind Pershing.
After the war, Marshall reverted to his permanent rank of captain.[52] In 1919, he became anaide-de-camp toGeneral Pershing.[5] Between 1920 and 1924, while Pershing wasArmy chief of staff, Marshall worked on a number of projects that focused on training and teaching modern, mechanized warfare. He taught at theArmy War College and was a key planner in theWar Department.[5] He then served as executive officer of the15th Infantry Regiment in theRepublic of China, where he remained for three years and learned to speak basic Mandarin.[5] In 1927, as alieutenant colonel, he was appointed assistant commandant of theInfantry School atFort Benning, where he initiated major changes to modernize command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit duringWorld War II.[5] Marshall placedEdwin F. Harding in charge of the Infantry School's publications, and Harding became editor[54] ofInfantry in Battle, a book that codified the lessons of World War I.Infantry in Battle is still used as an officer's training manual in the Infantry Officer's Course and was the training manual for most of the infantry officers and leaders of World War II.
Marshall's first wife died in 1927. The following year, while stationed at Fort Benning, Marshall metKatherine Tupper Brown at a dinner party.[19] They married on 15 October 1930, at Emmanuel Episcopal Church inBaltimore, Maryland.[55] The wedding made headlines as General Pershing served as Marshall's best man.[56]
During theGreat Depression, Marshall became a strong supporter of PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt and theNew Deal.[57] Army chief of staffDouglas MacArthur, who was a Republican and with whom Marshall had a contentious relationship, did not appreciate Marshall's views. After only a few months at Ft. Moultrie, MacArthur engineered Marshall's abrupt transfer to Chicago, where he served as senior instructor and chief of staff for the Illinois National Guard's33rd Division from November 1933 to August 1936.[5][58][59]
Brigadier General Marshall in 1938
Marshall was assigned to command the 5th Brigade of the3rd Infantry Division andVancouver Barracks inVancouver, Washington, from 1936 to 1938, and was promoted to brigadier general in October 1936.[5] In addition to obtaining a long-sought and significant troop command, traditionally viewed as an indispensable step to the pinnacle of the US Army, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps in Oregon and southern Washington.[5] As post commander Marshall made a concerted effort to cultivate relations with the city of Portland and to enhance the image of the US Army in the region. With the CCC, he initiated a series of measures to improve the morale of the participants and to make the experience beneficial in their later life. He started a newspaper for the CCC region that provided a vehicle to promote CCC successes, and he initiated a variety of programs that developed participants' skills and improved their health. Marshall's inspections of the CCC camps gave him and his wife Katherine the chance to enjoy the beauty of the AmericanPacific Northwest and made that assignment what he called "the most instructive service I ever had, and the most interesting."[60]
In July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division inWashington, D.C., and subsequently reassigned as Deputy Chief of Staff. In that capacity, then-Brigadier General Marshall attended a White House conference at which PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt proposed a plan to expand theUnited States Army Air Corps by 15,000 aircraft per year in preparation for World War II. With all other attendees voicing support, Marshall was the only one to disagree, pointing out the lack of consideration for logistical support or training. Marshall also spoke in favor of a large ground army although Roosevelt had said a large air force would be a greater deterrent to enemies, pointing out that theUnited States Army did not yet have a single division at full operational strength.[57] Despite others' belief then that Marshall had ended his career, his willingness to express disagreement resulted in Roosevelt nominating Marshall to be the Army Chief of Staff.
Upon the retirement of GeneralMalin Craig on 1 July 1939, Marshall became acting chief of staff.[61] Several generals were candidates to succeed Craig, includingHugh Aloysius Drum.[62][63] Roosevelt favored Marshall because he was more supportive ofNew Deal liberalism than theconservative and still-influentialDouglas MacArthur, who had been chief of staff from 1930 to 1935, and because of the recommendations of Pershing, Craig,Louis A. Johnson, and Roosevelt's close advisorHarry Hopkins.[57] Marshall was sworn in as chief of staff on 1 September 1939, just hours after theWehrmacht launched itsinvasion of Poland.[57][64] He held this post until retiring in November 1945.[65] At the time of the appointment, Marshall was 34th overall in seniority, outranked by 21 major generals and 11 brigadier generals, but was fifth in line for the position of chief of staff under an unwritten rule that candidates should be able to serve a full four-year term before reaching the mandatory retirement age of 64.[66]
In 1941, Marshall became aFreemason, raised "at sight" by thegrand master of the Grand Lodge of the District of Columbia.[68] ("At sight" is the procedure by which a grand master confers on a candidate all three Masonic degrees – Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master – at one time.)[68]
Marshall standing behind President Roosevelt and British prime ministerWinston Churchill aboard the British battleshipHMS Prince of Wales on 10 August 1941
As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in American history, inheriting an outmoded, poorly equipped Regular Army of 189,000 men and, partly drawing from his experience teaching and developing techniques of modern warfare as an instructor at theArmy War College, coordinated the large-scale expansion and modernization of the U.S. Army. Under his name were produced significant works of doctrine such asField Manual 100-5. During his first week in office, he advised Roosevelt to issue anexecutive order expanding theRegular Army to 227,000 troops and theNational Guard to 235,000 reservists, although the President could not immediately act because theUnited States Congress still favoredisolationism.[69]
Cover to the bookInfantry in Battle, the World War II officer's guide to infantry combat operations. Marshall directed production of the book, which is still used as a reference today.
Faced with the necessity of turning former civilians into an army of over eight million soldiers by 1942 (a fortyfold increase within three years), Marshall directed McNair as commander ofArmy Ground Forces to focus efforts on rapidly producing large numbers of soldiers. With the exception of airborne forces, Marshall approved McNair's concept of an abbreviated training schedule for men entering Army land forces training, particularly in regard to basic infantry skills, weapons proficiency, and combat tactics.[72][73] At the time, most U.S. commanders at lower levels had little or no combat experience of any kind. Without the input of experienced British or Allied combat officers on the nature of modern warfare and enemy tactics, many resorted to formulaic training methods emphasizing static defense and orderly large-scale advances by motorized convoys over improved roads.[74] In consequence, Army forces deploying to Africa inOperation Torch suffered serious initial reverses when they encountered German armored units in Africa in theBattle of Kasserine Pass and other major battles.[73] Even as late as 1944, American soldiers undergoing stateside training in preparation for deployment against German forces in Europe were not being trained in combat procedures and tactics in use there.[75]
Originally, Marshall had planned a 265-division army with a system of unit rotation such as that practiced by theBritish and other Allies.[76] By mid-1943, however, after pressure from government and business leaders to preserve manpower for industry and agriculture, he had abandoned this plan in favor of a 90-division Army using individual replacements sent via a circuitous process from training to divisions in combat.[76] The individual replacement system devised by Marshall and implemented by McNair exacerbated problems withunit cohesion and effective transfer of combat experience to new soldiers and officers.[73][77] In Europe, where there were few pauses in combat with German forces, the individual replacement system had broken down completely by late 1944.[78] Hastily trained replacements or service personnel reassigned as infantry were often given only a few weeks' refresher training before being thrown into battle with Army divisions locked in front-line combat.
The new men were often not even proficient in the use of their own weapons, and once in combat, could not receive enough practical instruction from veterans before being killed or wounded, sometimes within the first few days.[73][78][72] Under such conditions, many soldiers suffered a crippling loss of morale, while veterans were kept at the front until they were killed, wounded, or incapacitated by battle fatigue or illness. Incidents of soldiers goingAWOL from combat duty as well as battle fatigue and self-inflicted injury rose rapidly during the last eight months of the war withNazi Germany.[73][77][78] As one historian concluded, "Had the Germans been given a free hand to devise a replacement system..., one that would do the Americans the most harm and the least good, they could not have done a better job."[78][79]
Marshall's abilities to pick competent field commanders during the early part of the war was decidedly mixed. He was instrumental in advancing the careers of the highly capable generals such asDwight D. Eisenhower,Omar Bradley,George S. Patton,Walter Krueger andMark W. Clark. A notable exception was his recommendation of the swaggeringLloyd Fredendall to Eisenhower for a major command in the American invasion of North Africa during Operation Torch. Marshall was especially fond of Fredendall, describing him as "one of the best" and remarking in a staff meeting when his name was mentioned, "I like that man; you can see determination all over his face." Eisenhower duly picked him to command the 39,000-man Central Task Force (the largest of three) in Operation Torch. Both men would come to regret that decision, as Fredendall was the leader of U.S. Army forces at the disastrousBattle of Kasserine Pass.[71]
During World War II, Marshall was instrumental in preparing the U.S. Army andArmy Air Forces for the invasion ofContinental Europe. Marshall wrote the document that would become the central strategy for all Allied operations in Europe. During theArcadia Conference, he convinced the United Kingdom to accept this strategy, including the focus on defeating Germany first and the establishment of international unified commands in control of all Allied forces in a given theatre. His push for unity of command, in particular through theCombined Chiefs of Staff and theAmerican-British-Dutch-Australian Command, met with resistance from theBritish Armed Forces underAlan Brooke because the scheme would allow the United States to dominate the Western Allied war effort, but the British government ultimately approved.[80]
He initially scheduledOperation Overlord for 1 April 1943, but met with strong opposition from Winston Churchill, who convinced Roosevelt to commit troops toOperation Husky for the invasion ofItaly.[81] Marshall and his advisors also opposed theAllied invasion of French North Africa after it became clear thatVichy France would offer resistance, concerns over an Axis intervention throughFrancoist Spain andGibraltar, and suspicions that the operation was intended to defend European colonial territory with little strategic value to the war.[82]
When rumors circulated that Marshall would become the Supreme Commander of Operation Overlord, many critics viewed the potential transfer as a demotion, since he would leave his position as Chief of Staff of the Army and lose his seat on theCombined Chiefs of Staff.[83] While Marshall enjoyed considerable success in working with Congress and Roosevelt, he refused to lobby for the position. Roosevelt selected Eisenhower, in large part because he did not want to do without Marshall in the Chief of Staff position. He told Marshall, "I didn't feel I could sleep at ease if you were out of Washington."[84]
On 16 December 1944, Marshall became the first American general to be promoted to the newly created rank ofgeneral of the Army, afive-star rank that placed senior American commanders on an equal footing with thefield marshals of European Allies; Marshall had objected to being awarded the title of field marshal, as it would have given him the title of "Marshal Marshall".[85][86]
Throughout the remainder of World War II, Marshall coordinated Allied operations in both Europe and the Pacific. He was characterized as the organizer of Allied victory by Churchill.Time magazine named MarshallMan of the Year for 1943.[8] Marshall resigned his post of chief of staff on 18 November 1945, but did not retire, as regulations stipulate that generals of the Army remain on active duty for life. He was succeeded as Army chief of staff by General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower.[9] During this time, he also received a Bronzeoak leaf cluster to his Army DSM for his unprecedented work from 1939 to 1945. The medal's citation reads:
The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress 9 July 1918, takes pleasure in presenting a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster in lieu of a Second Award of the Army Distinguished Service Medal to General of the Army George Catlett Marshall, Jr. (ASN: 0-1616), United States Army, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States, in a duty of great responsibility during the period from September 1939 through November 1945. The singularly distinctive accomplishments of General Marshall reflect the highest credit upon himself and the United States Army.[49]
President Truman, Marshall, Secretary of StateJames F. Byrnes, and General Arnold at the White House, August 1945
After World War II ended, the Congressional Joint Committee on the Investigation of thePearl Harbor Attack received testimony on the intelligence failure. It amassed 25,000 pages of documents, 40 volumes, and included nine reports and investigations, eight of which had been previously completed. These reports included criticism of Marshall for delaying sending Lieutenant GeneralWalter Short, the Army commander in Hawaii, important information obtained from intercepted Japanese diplomatic messages. The report also criticized Marshall's lack of knowledge of the readiness of theHawaiian Command during November and December 1941.[87] Marshall also advised President Roosevelt to move part of the United States Pacific Fleet to the Atlantic Ocean to assistNeutrality Patrols, and that the defenses atOahu made a Japanese attack on the island impossible. These recommendations were dismissed by the President but could have been catastrophic if they had not been.[88]
Ten days after the attack, Short and AdmiralHusband E. Kimmel, commander of theUnited States Pacific Fleet atNaval Station Pearl Harbor, were both relieved of their duties. The final report of the Joint Committee did not single out or fault Marshall. While the report was critical of the overall situation, the committee noted that subordinates had failed to pass on important information to their superiors, including to Marshall.[89][90]
A secret review of the Army's role, which resulted in theClausen Report, was authorized by SecretaryHenry Stimson.[91] The report was critical of Short and also of ColonelRufus S. Bratton of the Military Intelligence Division (G-2), who investigatorHenry Clausen concluded arrived at the War Department later on the morning of 7 December 1941 than he initially claimed during testimony and invented a story about a warning to affected army commanders about the imminent Pearl Harbor Attack being delayed because he had been unable to get in touch with Marshall, an allegation which "nearly destroyed" Marshall.[91]
Only weeks after Marshall's retirement, in December 1945, PresidentHarry Trumandispatched Marshall to theRepublic of China, where he had served in the 1920s. His new mission was to prevent a resumption of theChinese Civil War by brokering a coalition government between America'sKuomintang allies under GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shek and theChinese Communist Party ofMao Zedong. Marshall had no leverage over the Communists but threatened to withdraw American aid essential to the Nationalists. Both sides rejected his proposals and he returned to the United States in January 1947.[92][93] As Secretary of State, Marshall disagreed with the Defense and State Department views that Chiang's success was vital to American interests, insisting that U.S. troops not become involved. The war continued, and the Communists won in 1949.
After Marshall's return to the U.S. in early 1947, Truman appointed himSecretary of State. As one of the most well-regarded and least politicized national leaders, he made an ideal front office personality. He became the spokesman for the State Department's ambitious plans to rebuild Europe. He did not design the plans and paid little attention to details or negotiations. Nor did he keep current on details of foreign affairs. As one biographer notes, he had never been a workaholic.[94] He turned over major responsibilities to his deputies, especially Under-SecretaryRobert A. Lovett, and refused to be troubled by minutiae. By 1948, with frailties building up, his participation was further curtailed. Marshall said, "The fact of the matter is that Lovett bears the principal burden as I get away whenever possible."[95]
General Marshall being sworn in as Secretary of State by Chief JusticeFred Vinson in theOval Office on 21 January 1947
On 5 June 1947, in a speech[96] atHarvard University, he outlined the American proposal. The European Recovery Program, as it was formally known, became known as theMarshall Plan.Clark Clifford had suggested to Truman that the plan be called the Truman Plan, but Truman immediately dismissed that idea and insisted that it be called the Marshall Plan.[97][98] The Marshall Plan would help Europe rebuild and modernize its economy along American lines and open up new opportunities for international trade. Stalin ordered his satellites in Eastern Europe not to participate. Marshall was again named "Man of the Year" byTime in January 1948.[99]
Truman repeatedly rejected Marshall's advice on Middle Eastern policy.[100] As Secretary of State, Marshall strongly opposed recognizing the newly formed state ofIsrael. Marshall felt that if the state of Israel was declared, a war would break out in the Middle East (which it did when the1948 Arab–Israeli War began one day afterIsrael declared independence). Marshall saw recognizing theJewish state as a political move to gainAmerican Jewish support in the upcoming election, in which Truman was expected to lose toThomas E. Dewey. He told President Truman in May 1948, "If you [recognize the state of Israel] and if I were to vote in the election, I would vote against you."[101][102][103] However, Marshall refused to vote in any election as a matter of principle.[104][105][D][E]
During his tenure as Secretary of State, Marshall also urged Truman to immediately call forThe Netherlands to stop theirinvasion of Indonesia, a formerDutch colony which haddeclared independence in 1945. The Netherlands ignored the Truman administration's initial entreaties. As a result, the Marshall Plan program for the Netherlands' economic recovery was put on hold and the Truman administration threatened to cut all economic aid. The Netherlands finally agreed to withdraw and transferred sovereignty following theDutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in 1949.[106]
Marshall resigned as Secretary of State because of ill health on 7 January 1949. He was severely exhausted throughout his tenure in the position.Dean Acheson in late 1947 said he was underperforming like "a four-engine bomber going only on one engine."[107] Truman named him to the largely honorific positions of chairman of theAmerican Battle Monuments Commission and president of theAmerican National Red Cross.[108] He received the 1953Nobel Peace Prize for his post-war work, despite the criticism that he was a warrior not a pacifist.[109]
Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall in his office at the Pentagon
When the early months of theKorean War showed how poorly prepared the Defense Department was, President Truman fired SecretaryLouis A. Johnson and named Marshall asSecretary of Defense in September 1950.[3] The appointment required a congressional waiver because theNational Security Act of 1947 prohibited a uniformed military officer from serving in the post. This prohibition included Marshall since individuals promoted to General of the Army are not technically retired but remain officially on active duty.[110] Marshall was the first person to be granted such a waiver; in 2017,Jim Mattis became the second and in January 2021, GeneralLloyd Austin became the third.[111] Marshall's main role as Secretary of Defense was to restore confidence and morale to the Defense Department while rebuilding theUnited States Armed Forces following theirpost-World War II demobilization.
Secretary of Defense George C. Marshall discussing the Korean War with President Truman and Special Assistant to the President Averell Harriman in the Oval Office
Marshall worked to provide more manpower to meet the demands of both theKorean War and theCold War in Europe. To implement his priorities Marshall brought in a new leadership team, includingRobert A. Lovett as his deputy andAnna M. Rosenberg, former head of theWar Manpower Commission, as assistant secretary of defense for manpower. He also worked to rebuild the relationship between the Defense and State Departments, as well as the relationship between the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Marshall participated in the post-Inchon landing discussion that led to authorizingDouglas MacArthur to conduct theUN offensive into North Korea. A secret "eyes only" signal from Marshall to MacArthur on 29 September 1950, declared the Truman administration's commitment: "We want you to feel unhampered strategically and tactically to proceed north of the38th Parallel".[112] At the same time, Marshall advised against public pronouncements which might lead toUnited Nations votes undermining or countermanding the initial mandate to restore theborder between North and South Korea. Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff were generally supportive of MacArthur because they were of the view that field commanders should be able to exercise their best judgment in accomplishing the intent of their superiors.[citation needed]
Following Chinese military intervention in Korea during late November, Marshall and the Joint Chiefs of Staff sought ways to aid MacArthur while avoiding all-out war with China. In the debate over what to do about China's increased involvement, Marshall opposed a cease-fire on the grounds that it would make the U.S. look weak in China's eyes, leading to demands for future concessions.[113] In addition, Marshall argued that the U.S. had a moral obligation to honor its commitment to South Korea. When British Prime MinisterClement Attlee suggested diplomatic overtures to China, Marshall opposed, arguing that it was impossible to negotiate with the Communist government. In addition, Marshall expressed concern that concessions to China would undermine confidence in the U.S. among its Asian allies, including Japan and the Philippines. When some in Congress favored expanding the war in Korea and confronting China, Marshall argued against a wider war in Korea, continuing instead to stress the importance ofcontaining theSoviet Union during the Cold War battle for primacy in Europe.[citation needed]
Increasingly concerned about public statements from MacArthur, commander ofUnited Nations Command forces fighting in the Korean War, which contradicted President Truman's on prosecution of the war, on the morning of 6 April 1951, Truman held a meeting with Marshall,Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, Secretary of State Dean Acheson and advisorW. Averell Harriman to discuss whether MacArthur should be removed from command.[114]
Harriman was emphatically in favor of MacArthur's relief, but Bradley opposed it.[114] Marshall asked for more time to consider the matter.[114] Acheson was in favor but did not disclose this, instead warning Truman that if he did it, MacArthur's relief would cause "the biggest fight of your administration."[115] At another meeting the following day, Marshall and Bradley continued to oppose MacArthur's relief.[114] On 8 April, the Joint Chiefs of Staff met with Marshall, and each expressed the view that MacArthur's relief was desirable from a "military point of view," suggesting that "if MacArthur were not relieved, a large segment of our people would charge that civil authorities no longer controlled the military."[116]
Marshall, Bradley, Acheson, and Harriman met with Truman again on 9 April.[114] Bradley informed the President of the views of the Joint Chiefs, and Marshall added that he agreed with them.[114] Truman wrote in his diary that "it is of unanimous opinion of all that MacArthur be relieved. All four so advise."[117] (The Joint Chiefs would later insist that they had only "concurred" with the relief, not "recommended" it.)[118]
On 11 April 1951, Truman directed transmittal of an order to MacArthur, issued over Bradley's signature, relieving MacArthur of his assignment in Korea and directing him to turn over command toMatthew Ridgway.[119] In line with Marshall's view, and those of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, MacArthur's relief was looked upon by proponents as being necessary to reassert the tenet ofcivilian control of the military.[114]
In September 1951, after 49 years of continuous public service, Marshall retired to his home,Dodona Manor, inLeesburg, Virginia.[120] Purchased by the Marshalls in 1941, Dodona had previously served as a quiet weekend retreat for the busy couple.[121] The home was restored beginning in the 1990s and the house and its gardens are open to the public as a museum.[120]
It was at Dodona Manor that Marshall enjoyed his favorite food, roast leg of lamb, and his favorite beverage, anold fashioned.[122] Gardening was one of Marshall's favorite pastimes, and in retirement he grew vegetables throughout the year, including tomatoes and pumpkins, while Katherine Marshall enjoyed tending to her rose garden.[121] In a 1942 letter to David Burpee, president of theW. Atlee Burpee & Company, Marshall wrote, "The business of seeds and flowers tantalizes me because I have been an amateur gardener, both flower and vegetable, since a boy of ten. There is nothing I would so much prefer to do this spring as to turn my mind to the wholesome business of gardening rather than the terrible problems and tragedies of war."[123]
Katherine's love of roses was well known, leading inventor Eugene S. Boerner to create the Katherine Tupper Marshall Rose, a pink hybrid tea rose.[124] It was patented by Jackson and Perkins in 1943.[124]
Throughout his retirement, Marshall served as chairman of the American Battle Monuments Commission.[125] He oversaw the construction of fourteen cemeteries in eight countries following World War II to memorialize those killed or missing in battle.[126] In the early 1950s, Marshall argued for the speedy construction and funding of cemeteries despite budget and staff cuts for the Korean War. Marshall wrote to GeneralJoseph McNarney in March 1951 saying, "I am naturally hesitant to become personally involved in individual personnel problems, but in this case, am deeply concerned about the overall morale factor if our foreign national cemeteries are not adequately maintained...."[126] Marshall's efforts to secure building and maintenance staff for the cemeteries were successful, doubling the number of military officers assigned to the work.[126] On 13 September 1952, Marshall attended the dedication ceremony ofSuresnes American Cemetery in France.[126][127]
After retiring, Marshall largely withdrew from public life.[128] A notable exception was in June 1953, when he accepted President Eisenhower's appointment to head the American delegation to thecoronation of Queen Elizabeth II.[129] The delegation includedEarl Warren and Omar Bradley, and according to Bradley, as Marshall walked up the aisle ofWestminster Abbey to take his seat before the ceremony, the congregation rose to its feet as a gesture of respect.[128] Marshall looked behind him to see who the arriving dignitary was, then realized the congregation had stood for him.[128] Marshall was also invited to the post-ceremony banquet atBuckingham Palace, and was the only non-royal seated at Queen Elizabeth's table.[128]
Cover ofTogether: Annals of an Army Wife, by Katherine Tupper Marshall. Published 1946
George Marshall was the youngest of three siblings.[130] His older brother Stuart Bradford Marshall (1875–1956) was a graduate of theVirginia Military Institute and became a manager and executive in several metal production corporations, including the American Manganese Manufacturing Company.[130][131][132] He later worked as a metallurgist and consulting engineer specializing in the production and operation of blast furnaces, coke ovens, and foundries.[131] George and Stuart Marshall were long estranged because George married Lily Coles, who a few years before had rejected Stuart's proposal.[130] When Stuart found out George was engaged to Lily, Stuart made unkind remarks about her, and George "cut him off my list."[130] Marshall's sister, Marie Louise (1876–1962) was the wife of John Johnston Singer (1879–1934), an Army physician.[133]
On 11 February 1902, Marshall married Elizabeth Carter "Lily" Coles at her mother's home in Lexington, Virginia.[24] Marshall met Lily after listening to her play the piano across the street from VMI.[134] Marshall, being immediately smitten, would "run the block", or leave barracks after hours, to be with her.[134] After traveling abroad to Japan, Korea, and China with Marshall, Lily returned to the U.S. to have agoiter removed. She died on 15 September 1927, after thyroid surgery that strained her weak heart.[135] They did not have children.[136]
On 15 October 1930, Marshall married Katherine Boyce Tupper (8 October 1882 – 18 December 1978);[137][138] They had no children, but she was the mother of three children with Baltimore lawyer Clifton Stevenson Brown.[139] He had been murdered by a disgruntled client in 1928.[140] The second Mrs. Marshall was a graduate of theAmerican Academy of Dramatic Arts; she later studied at theComédie-Française and toured withFrank Benson's English Shakespearean Company.[140] She authored a memoir in 1946,Together: Annals of an Army Wife.[141]
One of Marshall's stepsons, Allen Tupper Brown (1916–1944), was an Army lieutenant who was killed in Italy on 29 May 1944.[142] Another stepson was Major Clifton Stevenson Brown Jr. (1914–1952).[143] Stepdaughter Molly Brown Winn (1912–1997), the mother of actressKitty Winn, was married to Colonel James Julius Winn (1907–1990), who had been an aide to Marshall.[144][139] Molly Winn was active in preserving Marshall's legacy, including preserving Dodona Manor and publishing Marshall's World War I memoirs.[144]
Grave site of George Marshall at Arlington National Cemetery
After a series of strokes, Marshall died atWalter Reed Hospital in Washington, D.C., on 16 October 1959, two months shy of his 79th birthday.[145] Although he was entitled to official proceedings, Marshall preferred simplicity, so he received a special military funeral that dispensed with many of the usual activities.[146] The ceremonies included lying in state atWashington National Cathedral for 24 hours, guarded by representatives from each U.S. armed service and a VMI cadet.[146]
President Eisenhower ordered flags flown at half-staff and was among the 200 guests invited for the funeral service held atFort Myer.[146] Other dignitaries included former President Truman, Secretary of StateChristian A. Herter, former Secretary of State Dean Acheson, former Governor W. Averell Harriman and Generals Omar N. Bradley,Alfred M. Gruenther, and Matthew B. Ridgway.[146] His parish priest, Franklin Moss Jr., from St. James Episcopal Church in Leesburg conducted the chapel and graveside services, assisted by former chief chaplain and National Cathedral Canon the ReverendLuther Miller.[146] In accordance with Marshall's wishes, there was no eulogy.[146] Following the burial service, an artillery battery fired a 19-gun salute and a bugler played taps. The flag that draped Marshall's casket was folded and given to Mrs. Marshall by a VMI cadet.[146]
Marshall was buried atArlington National Cemetery, Section 7, Grave 8198, beside his first wife and her mother, Elizabeth Pendleton Coles (1849–1929).[145][147] His second wife was also buried with him after she died on 18 December 1978.[148] On its reverse side, the marble headstone lists General Marshall's positions held: "Chief of Staff U.S. Army, Secretary of State, President of American Red Cross, Secretary of Defense." The five-star rank adorns both sides of the stone.
As William Taylor and other historians have recently emphasized, George Marshall was the best-known and most active – and most selfless – American leader in the early Cold War. His leadership had a distinct, signature style[149] which contained "Disdain for false speaking and dissembling", "Aura of Authority" and "Immensity of Integrity".[150] He viewed his world in definitive black and white with no vagueness in arguments or gray areas in decision-making.[151] Marshall is best known for giving his name and prestige to the Marshall Plan to rebuild the European economy. However, he suffered several defeats – he failed in the year-long effort to resolve the Chinese Civil War; he was defeated in his proposal to impose universal military service on all American men; and he was overruled by President Truman when he opposed the recognition of Israel. Historians agree that Truman depended heavily upon Marshall's prestige at a time of intensely bitter partisanship. Wilson Miscamble points to Marshall's delayed recognition of the threat posed by the Soviet Union – not until April 1947 did he realize the dangers. Miscamble concludes that recent studies show that Marshall was:
An important contributor but hardly a dominant figure in the making of postwar American foreign policy. He had a special gift for delegation and he drew forth impressive contributions from various capable subordinates.[152]
Marshall's reputation for excellence as a military organizer and planner was recognized early in his career and became known throughout the Army. In a performance appraisal prepared while Marshall was a lieutenant in the Philippines, his superior, Captain E. J. Williams responded to the routine question of whether he would want the evaluated officer to serve under his command again by writing of Marshall "Should the exigencies of active service place him in exalted command I would be glad to serveunder him." (Emphasis added)[153]
After Marshall participated in large-scale maneuvers and exercises in 1913 while serving as J. Franklin Bell's aide, Bell commended his performance by writing that Marshall was "the greatest potential wartime leader in the army."[154]
In 1916, Lieutenant ColonelJohnson Hagood completed a written evaluation of Marshall's performance in which he called Marshall a military genius. Responding to the question of whether he would want his subordinate Marshall to serve under him again, Hagood wrote "Yes, but I would prefer to serveunder his command." (Emphasis added)[155] Hagood went on to recommend Marshall's immediate promotion to brigadier general, despite the fact that there were more than 1,800 officers, including Hagood, who were senior to him.[156]
After the surrender of theNazi German government in May 1945, Henry L. Stimson, theSecretary of War, paid tribute to Marshall in front of a gathering of members of the Army staff, concluding with: "I have seen a great many soldiers in my lifetime and you, Sir, are the finest soldier I have ever known."[156]
Historians credit the high regard others had for Marshall's personal integrity as another reason for his positive legacy.[157] In addition to his willingness to confront Pershing over Pershing's berating of the 1st Division chief of staff during World War I, Marshall cited other instances where he provided persistent advice that kept Pershing from creating needless controversy.[157] In one, Marshall recalled a time when Pershing andJames Harbord intended to change a War Department policy implemented byPeyton March, the chief of staff of the Army and Pershing's nominal superior, with whom Pershing had a long-running feud.[157] Marshall counseled against it several times, and Pershing angrily indicated that his chief of staff Harbord and he intended to submit their proposal despite Marshall's advice.[157] Rather than concede, Marshall replied that Pershing was letting his personal feud with March cloud his judgment and that Harbord, who also disliked March, was doing the same.[157] Instead of continuing to "pull rank", Pershing yielded to Marshall's judgment and said "Well, have it your own way."[157]
In another incident that highlighted Marshall's reputation for integrity, when President Franklin Roosevelt, a formerAssistant Secretary of the Navy, favored the Navy during World War II planning, Marshall suggested that Roosevelt stop referring to the Navy as "us" and the Army as "them."[158] Roosevelt laughed, but Marshall's humorous protest had made its point.[158]
In addition to his military success, Marshall is primarily remembered as the driving force behind the Marshall Plan, which provided billions of dollars in aid to post war Europe to restart the economies of the destroyed countries. In recent years, the cooperation required between former European adversaries as part of the Marshall Plan has been recognized as one of the earliest factors that led toEuropean integration beginning with the formation of theEuropean Coal and Steel Community, and eventually the formation of theEuropean Union.[159]
In a television interview after leaving office, Truman was asked which American he thought had made the greatest contribution of the preceding thirty years. Without hesitation, Truman picked Marshall, adding "I don't think in this age in which I have lived, that there has been a man who has been a greater administrator; a man with a knowledge of military affairs equal to General Marshall."[160]
Orson Welles said in a 1970 interview withDick Cavett that "Marshall is the greatest man I ever met ... I think he was the greatest human being who was also a great man ... He was a tremendous gentleman: an old fashioned institution which isn't with us anymore."[161] The story Welles related to Cavett to illustrate his point was about a time he saw Marshall take the time to speak with a young American soldier who had accidentally entered the same room. The young man was starstruck to have accidentally stumbled upon Marshall, yet Marshall still patiently and politely engaged the soldier in conversation.[161]
Two non-profit organizations, theGeorge C. Marshall Foundation and the George C. Marshall International Center, actively propagate General Marshall's legacy. The Marshall Foundation oversees Marshall's official papers and over two million other documents relating to the 20th century. The International Center preserves Marshall's home, Dodona Manor, as a museum and hosts educational programs focusing on Marshall's life, leadership, and role in American history.[60]
Numerous streets are named for General Marshall, including George-Marshall-Straße inWiesbaden, Germany and George-C.-Marshall-Ring inOberursel, Germany.[162][163]
On 30 April 1998, theGeorge C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies unveiled the first public statue of General Marshall in Europe inGarmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany.[164] The slightly larger-than-life statue was sponsored by the Marshall Center, the Friends of the Marshall Center and the City of Garmisch-Partenkirchen. It shows Marshall in uniform walking across a bronze bridge, facing east, to greet new friends and allies and was designed by artist Christiane Horn ofWartenberg, Bavaria.Vernon A. Walters, formerU.S. ambassador to Germany, was a keynote speaker during the dedication ceremony.[164]
Note – Marshall served as Secretary of State from 21 January 1947 to 20 January 1949. He retired from the Army on 28 February 1947 and returned to active duty on 1 March 1949.[177][178]
^U.S. officers holding five-star rank never retire; they draw full active duty pay for life.
^In an interview late in his life, when asked whether he regarded himself a Virginian, he answered: 'My family are Kentucky. I myself was the only member of the family born up north... I married two Virginians, very ardent Virginians, and I went to school in a very ardent, historical Virginia section school. I might say also that I pay taxes in Virginia" (Unger, Unger & Hirshson 2014, p. 5n)
^Marshall's Silver Star citation reads: "he was Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations at the First Division Headquarters from 8 June 1917, to 6 July 1918. By his superior professional attainments, his tactical skill, his sound judgment, and his courageous conduct in obtaining information through personal visits to the most exposed lines, he contributed in a determining manner to the training, morale, and operations of the Division in the Toul Sector, the Cantigny Sector, and the movement for the offensive at Soissons."[45]
^Marshall even went to great lengths to prevent himself from falling prey to the allures of power. He had always refused to vote because he subscribed to the belief that a professional soldier should remain above politics, but he took other steps to insulate himself from the corrupting influence of power once he became chief of staff (Uldrich 2005).
^"General Marshall could see the President anytime, but being a general he never took advantage of this. In fact, on one occasion, I think it was over Palestine actually, he told the President – I was told by somebody at the meeting – "Mr. President, if you take this action I wouldn't vote for you, but of course I don't vote." He as an Army officer never voted apparently in his life" (McKinzie 1972).
^Bigelow, Michael E. (May–June 1998)."Knowing and Doing".Military Review. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: United States Army Command and General Staff College. p. 64 – viaGoogle Books.
^Hill, MJR (2014).Comparative Analysis Of The Military Leadership Styles Of George C. Marshall And Dwight D. Eisenhower. United States: Lucknow Books. p. 42.ISBN978-1782895251.
^Pops, GM (2010).Ethical Leadership in Turbulent Times: Modeling the Public Career of George C. Marshall. United States: Lexington Books. p. 64.ISBN978-0739124772.
^Pogue, FC (1963).George C. Marshall. United States: Viking Press.
^Empric, Bruce E. (2024),Uncommon Allies: U.S. Army Recipients of Soviet Military Decorations in World War II, Teufelsberg Press, p. 45,ISBN979-8-3444-6807-5
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Vol. 1: "The Soldierly Spirit," December 1880 – June 1939. (1981)
Vol. 2: "We Cannot Delay," 1 July 1939 – 6 December 1941. (1986)
Vol. 3: "The Right Man for the Job," 7 December 1941 – 31 May 1943. (1991)
Vol. 4: "Aggressive and Determined Leadership," 1 June 1943 – 31 December 1944. (1996)
Vol. 5: "The Finest Soldier," 1 January 1945 – 7 January 1947. (2003)
Vol. 6: "The Whole World Hangs in the Balance," 8 January 1947 – 30 September 1949. (2012)
Vol. 7: "The Man of the Age," 1 October 1949 – 16 October 1959. (2016)
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