As aregional nickname,[7] applying the term is set by one's definition of or acceptance to being called a Geordie: it varies from supporters ofNewcastle United Football Club,[8] the city, Tyneside, Tyne-and-Wear and to North East England. People from the latter two wider areas are less likely to accept the term as applying to them.[9][10]
The term has also been applied to theGeordie Schooner, glass traditionally used to serveNewcastle Brown Ale.[11] It is often consideredunintelligible to many other native English speakers.[12] The Geordie dialect and identity areperceived as the "most attractive in England", according to a 2008 newspaper survey,[13] amongst the British public and asworking-class.[14]
Like all English dialects, the Geordie dialect traces back to theOld English spoken byAnglo-Saxon settlers, initially employed by the ancientBrythons who foughtPictish invaders after the end ofRoman rule inBritain in the 5th century.[4] TheAngles,Saxons, andJutes who arrived became ascendant politically and culturally over the native British through subsequent migration from tribal homelands along theNorth Sea coast of mainland Europe. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that emerged in theDark Ages spoke largely mutually intelligible varieties of what is now called Old English, each varying somewhat inphonology,morphology,syntax, andlexicon. InNorthern England and theScottish borders, then dominated by the kingdom ofNorthumbria, there developed a distinctNorthumbrian Old English dialect, which preceded modern Geordie. Thelinguistic conservatism of Geordie means that poems by the Anglo-Saxon scholar theVenerable Bede can be translated more successfully into Geordie than into standard modern English.[15]
TheBritish Library points out that the Norse, who primarily lived south of theRiver Tees, affected the language in Yorkshire but not in regions to the north. This source adds that "the border skirmishes that broke out sporadically during the Middle Ages meant the River Tweed established itself as a significant northern barrier against Scottish influence". Today, many who speak the Geordie dialect use words such asgan ('go' – modern Dutchgaan) andbairn ('child' – modern Danishbarn), which "can still trace their roots right back to the Angles".[16]
When referring to the people, as opposed to the dialect, dictionary definitions of a Geordie typically refer to a native or inhabitant of Newcastle upon Tyne, England, or its environs,[17] an area that encompassesNorth Tyneside,Newcastle,South Tyneside andGateshead.[18][19] This area has a combined population of around 700,000, based on 2011 census-data.
The term itself, according to Brockett, originated from all the North East coal mines.[1] Thecatchment area for the term "Geordie" can include Northumberland and County Durham[2][3] or be confined to an area as small as the city ofNewcastle upon Tyne and the metropolitan boroughs of Tyneside.[7]
Scott Dobson, the author of the bookLarn Yersel Geordie, once stated that his grandmother, who was brought up inByker, thought the miners were the true Geordies.[4] There is a theory the name comes from the Northumberland and Durham coal mines. Poems and songs written in this area in 1876 (according to theOED), speak of the "Geordie".[5]
Academics refer to the Geordie dialect as "Tyneside English".[20][21][22][23]
According to the British Library, "Locals insist there are significant differences between Geordie and several other local dialects, such asPitmatic andMackem. Pitmatic is the dialect of the former mining areas in County Durham and around Ashington to the north of Newcastle upon Tyne, whileMackem is used locally to refer to the dialect of the city of Sunderland and the surrounding urban area ofWearside".[24]
A number of rival theories explain how the termGeordie came about, though all accept that it derives from a familiar diminutive form of the nameGeorge,[25] "a very common name among the pitmen"[1][26] (coal miners) in North East England; indeed, it was once the most popular name for eldest sons in the region.[citation needed]
One account traces the name to the times of theJacobite Rebellion of 1715. The Jacobites declared that the natives of Newcastle were staunch supporters of theHanoverian kings, whose first representativeGeorge I reigned (1714–1727) at the time of the 1715 rebellion. Newcastle contrasted with ruralNorthumberland, which largely supported the Jacobite cause. In this case, the term "Geordie" may have derived from the popular anti-Hanoverian song "Cam Ye O'er Frae France?",[27] which calls the first Hanoverian king "Geordie Whelps", a play on "George theGuelph".
Another explanation for the name is that localminers in the northeast of England usedGeordie safety lamps, designed byGeorge Stephenson, known locally as "Geordie the engine-wright",[28] in 1815[29] rather than the competingDavy lamps, designed about the same time byHumphry Davy and used in other mining communities. Using the chronological order of twoJohn Trotter Brockett books,Geordie was given to North East pitmen; later he acknowledges that the pitmen also christened their Stephenson lampGeordie.[1][26]
LinguistKatie Wales[30] also dates the term earlier than does the currentOxford English Dictionary; she observes thatGeordy (orGeordie) was a common name given to coal-mine pitmen in ballads and songs of the region, noting that such usage turns up as early as 1793. It occurs in the titles of two songs by songwriterJoe Wilson: "Geordy, Haud the Bairn" and "Keep your Feet Still, Geordie". Citing such examples as the song "Geordy Black", written by Rowland Harrison of Gateshead, she contends that, as a consequence of popular culture, the miner and the keelman had become icons of the region in the 19th century, and "Geordie" was a label that "affectionately and proudly reflected this," replacing the earlier ballad emblem, the figure ofBob Crankie.
In theEnglish Dialect Dictionary of 1900,Joseph Wright gave as his fourth definition of "Geordie":A man from Tyneside; a miner; a north-country collier vessel, quoting two sources from Northumberland, one from East Durham and one from Australia. The source from Durham stated: "In South Tyneside even, this name was applied to the Lower Tyneside men."[31]
Newcastle publisher Frank Graham'sGeordie Dictionary states:
The origin of the word Geordie has been a matter of much discussion and controversy. All the explanations are fanciful and not a single piece of genuine evidence has ever been produced.
In Graham's many years of research, the earliest record he found of the term's use dated to 1823 by localcomedian Billy Purvis. Purvis had set up a booth at the NewcastleRaces on theTown Moor. In an angry tirade against a rival showman, who had hired a youngpitman called Tom Johnson to dress as aclown, Billy cried out to the clown:
Ah man, wee but a feul wad hae sold off his furnitor and left his wife. Noo, yor a fair doon reet feul, not an artificial feul like Billy Purvis! Thous a real Geordie! gan man an hide thysel! gan an' get thy picks agyen. Thou may de for the city, but never for the west end o' wor toon.[32]
(Rough translation: "Oh man, who but a fool would have sold off his furniture and left his wife? Now, you're a fair downright fool, not an artificial fool like Billy Purvis! You're a real Geordie! Go on, man, and hide yourself! Go on and get your picks [axes] again. You may do for the city, but never for the west end of our town!")
John Camden Hotten wrote in 1869: "Geordie, general term in Northumberland and Durham for a pitman, or coal-miner. Origin not known; the term has been in use more than a century."[3] Using Hotten[3] as a chronological reference, Geordie has been documented for at least256 years as a term related to Northumberland and County Durham.
The nameBad-weather Geordy applied tocockle sellers:
As the season at which cockles are in greatest demand is generally the most stormy in the year – September to March – the sailors' wives at the seaport towns of Northumberland and Durham consider the cry of the cockle man as the harbinger of bad weather, and the sailor, when he hears the cry of 'cockles alive,' in a dark wintry night, concludes that a storm is at hand, and breathes a prayer, backwards, for the soul of Bad-Weather-Geordy.
— S. Oliver,Rambles in Northumberland, 1835
Travel writerScott Dobson used the term "Geordieland" in a 1973 guidebook to refer collectively to Northumberland and Durham.[2]
The phonemic notation used in this article is based on the set of symbols used byWatt & Allen (2003). Other scholars may use different transcriptions. Watt and Allen stated that there were approximately 800,000 people in the early 2000s who spoke this form of British English.[36][37]
Tyneside English (TE) is spoken in Newcastle upon Tyne, a city of around 260,000 inhabitants in the far north of England, and in the conurbation stretching east and south of Newcastle along the valley of the River Tyne as far as the North Sea. The total population of this conurbation, which also subsumes Gateshead, Jarrow, North and South Shields, Whitley Bay, and Tynemouth, exceeds 800,000.
/ɪŋ/ appearing in an unstressed final syllable of a word (such as inreading) is pronounced as[ən] (thus,reading is[ˈɹiːdən]).
The Geordie accent does not use the glottal stop in a usual fashion. It is characterised by a unique type of glottal stops./p,t,k/ can all be pronounced simultaneously with a glottal stop after them in Geordie, both at the end of a syllable and sometimes before a weak vowel.[38]
T-glottalisation, in which/t/ is realised by[ʔ] before a syllabic nasal (e.g.,button as[ˈbʊtʔn̩]), in absolute final position (get as[ɡɛtʔ]), and whenever the/t/ is intervocalic so long as the latter vowel is not stressed (pity as[ˈpɪtʔi]).
Glottaling in Geordie is known as 'pre-glottalisation', which is "an occlusion at the appropriate place of articulation and 'glottalisation', usually manifested as a short period of laryngealised voice before and/or after and often also during the stop gap".[39] This type of glottal is unique to Tyneside English.[40]
The dialect isnon-rhotic like most other dialects of England, with/r/ being realised most commonly as an alveolar approximant[ɹ], although a labiodental realisation[ʋ] is additionally growing in prevalence among younger females. (This variant is also possible, albeit rarer, in the speech of older males.) Traditionally,intrusive R was not present in Geordie, with speakers instead glottalising between boundaries; however, it is present in newer varieties of the dialect.[39]
Yod-coalescence in both stressed and unstressed syllables (so thatdew becomes[dʒɵʊ]).
/l/ is traditionally clear in all contexts, meaning thevelarised allophone is absent. However, modern accents may periodically use[ɫ] in syllable final positions, sometimes it may even bevocalised (as inbottle[ˈbɒʔʊ]).[39]
For some speakers, vowel length alternates with vowel quality in a very similar way to theScottish vowel length rule.[41]
Vowel length is phonemic for many speakers of Geordie, meaning that length is often the one and only phonetic difference betweenDRESS andSQUARE (/ɛ/ and/ɛː/) or betweenLOT andSTART/PALM (/ɒ/ and/ɒː/).[41] If older or traditional dialect forms are considered,TRAP (/a/) also has a phonemic long counterpart/aː/, which is mostly used inTHOUGHT words spelled with⟨a⟩, making minimal pairs such astack/tak/ vs.talk/taːk/ (less broad Geordie pronunciation:/tɔːk/). Another[aː] appears as an allophone of/a/ before final voiced consonants in words such aslad[laːd].[42]
Phonetic quality and phonemic incidence
FLEECE andGOOSE,/iː,uː/, are typically somewhat closer than in other varieties in morphologically closed syllables;/uː/ is also less prone to fronting than in other varieties of BrE and its quality is rather close to the cardinal[u]. However, younger women tend to use a central[ʉː] instead.[41] In morphologically open syllables,FLEECE andGOOSE are realised as closing diphthongs[ei,ɵʊ]. This creates minimal pairs such asfreeze[fɹiːz] vs.frees[fɹeiz] andbruise[bɹuːz~bɹʉːz] (hereafter transcribed with ⟨uː⟩ for the sake of simplicity) vs.brews[bɹɵʊz].[41][43]
TheHAPPY vowel is tense[i] and is best analysed as belonging to the/iː/ phoneme.[44]
As with other Northern English varieties, Geordie lacks theFOOT–STRUT split, so that words likecut,up andluck have the same/ʊ/ phoneme asput,sugar andbutcher. The typical phonetic realisation is unrounded[ɤ], but it may be hypercorrected to[ə] among middle-class (especially female) speakers.[45]
The long close-mid vowels/eː,oː/, inFACE andGOAT, may be realised as monophthongs[eː,oː] in open syllables or as opening diphthongs[ɪə,ʊə] in closed syllables. Alternatively,/eː/ can be a closing diphthong[eɪ] and/oː/ can be centralised to[ɵː].[41] The opening diphthongs are recessive, as younger speakers reject them in favour of the monophthongal[eː,oː~ɵː].[46]
Other, now archaic, realisations of/oː/ include[aː] insnow[snaː] and[aʊ] insoldiers[ˈsaʊldʒɐz].[41]
Many female speakers mergeGOAT/oː/ withTHOUGHT/ɔː/, but the exact phonetic quality of the merged vowel is uncertain.[41]
NURSE,/øː/, may be phonetically[øː] or a higher, unrounded vowel[ɪː].[41] An RP-like vowel[ɜ̝ː] is also possible.[43]
In older broadest Geordie,NURSE merges withTHOUGHT/ɔː/ to[ɔː] under the influence of a uvular[ʁ] that once followed it (when Geordie was still a rhotic dialect).[43][47] The fact that the original/ɔː/ vowel is never hypercorrected to[øː] or[ɜ̝ː] suggests that either this merger was never categorical, or that speakers are unusually successful in sorting those vowels out again.[43]
The schwa/ə/ is often rather open ([ɐ]). It also tends to be longer in duration than the preceding stressed vowel, even if that vowel is phonologically long. Therefore, words such aswater andmeter are pronounced[ˈwɔd̰ɐː] and[ˈmid̰ɐː].[41] This feature is shared with the very conservative (Upper Crust) variety of Received Pronunciation.[48]
Words such asvoices andended have/ə/ in the second syllable (so/ˈvɔɪsəz,ˈɛndəd/), rather than the/ɪ/ of RP. That does not mean that Geordie has undergone theweak vowel merger because/ɪ/ can still be found in some unstressed syllables in place of the more usual/ə/. An example of that is the second syllable ofseven/ˈsɛvɪn/, but it can also be pronounced with a simple schwa/ə/ instead. Certain weak forms also have/ɪ/ instead of/ə/; these includeat/ɪt/ (homophonous with strongit),of/ɪv/ (nearly homophonous withif),as/ɪz/ (homophonous with strongis),can/kɪn/ andus/ɪz/ (again, homophonous with strongis).[49]
As in other Northern English dialects, theBATH vowel is short/a/ in Geordie, thus there is no London-styletrap–bath split. There are a small number of exceptions to this rule; for instance,half,[43]master,plaster and sometimes alsodisaster are pronounced with theSTART/PALM vowel/ɒː/.[50]
Some speakers unroundSTART/PALM,/ɒː/, to[ɑː].[41] Regardless of the rounding, the difference in backness between/ɒː/ and/a/ is very pronounced, a feature which Geordie shares with RP and some northern and midland cities such as Stoke-on-Trent and Derby, but not with the accents of the middle north.[42]
Older traditional Geordie does not always adhere to the same distributional patterns of vowels found in standard varieties of English. Examples of that include the wordsno andstone, which may be pronounced[niː] and[stɪən], so with vowels that are best analysed as belonging to the/iː/ and/iə/ phonemes.[41]
The second elements ofNEAR andCURE,/iə,uə/, are commonly as open as the typical Geordie realisation of/ə/ ([ɐ]).[47]
The first element ofMOUTH,/æʊ/, varies between[æ],[ä] and[ɛ].[39][51] Traditionally, this whole vowel was a high monophthong[uː] (withtown being pronounced close to RPtoon) and this pronunciation can still be heard, as can a narrower diphthong[əu] (withtown being pronounced close to RPtone).[49]
PRICE is/ɛɪ/, but Geordie speakers generally use a less common allophone for certain environments in accordance with theScottish vowel length rule,[äɪ], which has a longer, lower, and more back onset than the main allophone. Thus[ɛɪ] is used in words such asknife[nɛɪf], whereas[äɪ] is used inknives[näɪvz].[41] For simplicity, both of them are written with ⟨ɛɪ⟩ in this article.
The Geordie dialect shares similarities with other Northern English dialects, as well as with theScots language (See Rowe 2007, 2009).
Dorfy, real name Dorothy Samuelson-Sandvid, was a noted Geordie dialect writer.[52][53] In her column for the SouthShields Gazette, Samuelson-Sandvid attests many samples of Geordie language usage, such as the nounsbairn ("child")[54] andclarts ("mud");[55] the adjectivescanny ("pleasant")[56] andclag ("sticky");[55] and theimperativeverb phrasehoway ("hurry up!"; "come on!")[57]
Howay is broadly comparable to the invocation "Come on!" or theFrench "Allez-y!" ("Go on!"). Examples of common use includeHoway man!, meaning "come on" or "hurry up",Howay the lads! as a term of encouragement for a sports team for example (the players' tunnel atSt James' Park has this phrase just above the entrance to the pitch), orHo'way!? (with stress on the second syllable) expressing incredulity or disbelief.[58] The literal opposite of this phrase ishaddaway ("go away"); although not as common ashoway, it is perhaps most commonly used in the phrase "Haddaway an' shite" (Tom Hadaway, Figure 5.2 Haddaway an' shite; 'Cursing like sleet blackening the buds, raging at the monk of Jarrow scribbling his morality and judgement into a book.').[59]
Another word,divvie ordivvy ("idiot"), seems to come from the Co-op dividend,[60] or from the twoDavy lamps (the more explosive Scotch Davy[61] used in 1850, commission disapproved of its use in 1886 (inventor not known, nicknamed Scotch Davy probably given by miners after the Davy lamp was made perhaps by north east miners who used the Stephenson Lamp[29][62]), and the later better designed Davy designed byHumphry Davy also called the Divvy.[63]) As in a north east miner saying 'Marra, ye keep way from me if ye usin a divvy.' It seems the word divvie then translated to daft lad/lass. Perhaps coming from the fact one would be seen as foolish going down a mine with a Scotch Divvy when there are safer lamps available, like the Geordie, or the Davy.
The Geordie wordnetty,[64] meaning a toilet and place of need and necessity for relief[64][65][66] or bathroom,[64][65][66] has an uncertain origin.[67] However, some have theorised that it may come from slang used byRoman soldiers onHadrian's Wall,[68] which may have later becomegabinetti in theRomance languageItalian[68] (such as in theWestoe Netty, the subject of a famous painting from Bob Olley[68][69]).Gabinetto inModern Italian actually derives from theFrench wordcabinet,[70][71] which can also have the meaning of "toilet" (cabinet d'aisances).[72] Thus, another explanation would be that it comes from the ModernItalian plural form of the wordgabinetti,[67] though only a relatively small number of Italians have migrated to the North of England, mostly during the 19th century.[73]
Someetymologists connect the wordnetty to theModern English wordneedy. John Trotter Brockett, writing in 1829 in hisA glossary of north country words...,[66] claims that theetymon ofnetty (and its related formneddy) is theModern Englishneedy[74] andneed.[75]
Bill Griffiths, inA Dictionary of North East Dialect, points to the earlier form, theOld Englishníd; he writes: "MS locates a possible early ex. "Robert Hovyngham sall make... at the other end of his house a knyttyng" York 1419, in which case the root could be OE níd 'necessary'".[65] Another related word,nessy is thought (by Griffiths) to derive from the Modern English "necessary".[65]
A poem called "Yam" narrated by author Douglas Kew demonstrates the usage of a number of Geordie words.[76][77]
^Simpson, David (2009)."Venerable Bede". Retrieved6 August 2010.Bede's Latin poems seem to translate more successfully into Geordie than into modern day English!
^abBrockett, John Trotter (1846).A Glossary of North Country Words (revised ed.). Newcastle-upon-Tyne, E. Charnley. p. 187.GEORDIE, George – a very common name among the pitmen. 'How! Geordie man! How is't' The Pitmen have given the name of Geordie to Mr George Stephenson's lamp in contra-distinction of the Davy, or Sir Humphry Davy's Lamp.
^Smiles, Samuel (1862). "chapter 8".The lives of the engineers. Vol. III.
^abSmiles, Samuel (1859).The Life of George Stephenson, Railway Engineer. Ticknor and Fields. p. 120.As to the value of the invention of the safety lamp, there could be no doubt; and the colliery owners of Durham and Northumberland, to testify their sense of its importance, determined to present a testimonial to its inventor.
^Arthur, T. (1875).The Life of Billy Purvis. S. Cowan and Co., Strathmore Printing Works, Perth. p. 82. Retrieved27 October 2014.
^Orton, Harold; Halliday, Wilfrid J (1962).Survey of English Dialects: Volume 1 Basic Material, Six Northern Counties and Man: Part 1. Leeds: EJ Arnold & Son. pp. 17–18.
^Petyt, Keith Malcolm (1980).The Study of Dialect: An introduction to dialectology. Andre Deutsch. pp. 94–96.ISBN0233972129.
^Docherty, Gerard; Foulkes, Paul Foulkes (2005). "Glottal variants of (t) in the Tyneside variety of English: an acoustic profiling study". In Hardcastle, William; Janet Beck (eds.).A Figure of Speech – a Festschrift for John Laver. London: Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 173–199.
^Colls, Robert; Lancaster, Bill; Bryne, David; Carr, Barry; Hadaway, Tom; Knox, Elaine; Plater, Alan; Taylor, Harvey; Williamson; Younger, Paul (2005).Geordies. Northumbria University Press. p. 90.ISBN978-1-904794-12-7.Hadaway an' shite; 'Cursing like sleet blackening the buds, raging at the monk of Jarrow scribbling his morality and judgement into a book.'
^IMS: Customer Satisfaction: BIP2005 (Integrated Management Systems). BSI Standards. 2003. p. 10.ISBN978-0-580-41426-8.An early example, which may be remembered by older readers was the Co-op dividend or 'divvie'. On paying their bill, shoppers would quote a number recorded ...
^Henderson, Clarks."NEIMME: Lamps – No. 14. SCOTCH DAVY LAMP". Archived fromthe original on 20 November 2008. Retrieved2 December 2007.CONSTRUCTION. Gauzes. Cylindrical, 2 ins diameter. 41/2" high with conical top, a double gauze 1 ins. in depth at the peak. 24 mesh iron. Light. Candle.
^abcGraham, Frank (November 1986).The Geordie Netty: A Short History and Guide. Butler Publishing; New Ed edition.ISBN978-0-946928-08-8.
^abcdGriffiths, Bill (1 December 2005).A Dictionary of North East Dialect. Northumbria University Press. p. 122.ISBN978-1-904794-16-5.Netty outside toilet, Ex.JG Annfield Plain 1930s. "nessy or netty" Newbiggin-in-Teesdale C20/mid; "outside netties" Dobson Tyne 1972; 'lavatory' Graham Geordie 1979. EDD distribution to 1900: N'd. NE 2001: in circulation. ?C18 nessy from necessary; ? Ital. cabinette; Raine MS locates a possible early ex. "Robert Hovyngham sall make... at the other end of hys house knyttyng" York 1419, in which case root could be OE nid 'necessity'. Plus "to go to the Necessary" (public toilet) Errington p.67 Newcastle re 1800s: "lav" Northumbrian III C20/2 re Crawcrook; "oot back" G'head 2001 Q; "larty – toilet, a children's word, the school larties'" MM S.Shields C20/2 lavatory
^abcTrotter Brockett, John (1829).A glossary of north country words, in use. From an original manuscript, with additions. Oxford University. p. 214.NEDDY, NETTY, a certain place that will not bear a written explanation; but which is depleted to the very life in a tail-piece in the first edition of Bewick's Land Birds, p. 285. In the second edition a bar is placed against the offending part of this broad display of native humour. Etymon needy, a place of need or necessity.
^ab"Netty". Archived fromthe original on 19 September 2008. Retrieved19 September 2008.although some theories suggest it is an abbreviation of Italian gabbinetti, meaning 'toilet'
^abcWainwright, Martin (4 April 2007)."Urinal finds museum home".The Guardian. London. Retrieved8 October 2007.the urinals have linguistic distinction: the Geordie word "netty" for lavatory derives from Roman slang on Hadrian's Wall which became "gabinetto" in Italian
^Saunders, Rod."Italian Migration to Nineteenth Century Britain: Why and Where, Why?". anglo-italianfhs.org.uk. Archived fromthe original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved3 September 2008.They were never in great numbers in the northern cities. For example, the Italian Consul General in Liverpool, in 1891, is quoted as saying that the majority of the 80–100 Italians in the city were organ grinders and street sellers of ice-cream and plaster statues. And that the 500–600 Italians in Manchester included mostly Terrazzo specialists, plasterers and modellers working on the prestigious, new town hall. While in Sheffield 100–150 Italians made cutlery.
Beal, Joan (2004), "English dialects in the North of England: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.),A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 113–133,ISBN3-11-017532-0
Colls, Robert; Lancaster, Bill (1992),Geordies: roots of regionalism (2nd ed.), Newcastle upon Tyne : Northumbria University Press,ISBN978-1904794127{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
Di Martino, Emilia (2019),Celebrity Accents and Public Identity Construction. Geordie Stylizations, Routledge,ISBN978-1000022407
Keuchler, Karsten (2010),Geordie Accent and Tyneside English, GRIN Verlag,ISBN978-3640742738
Rowe, Charley (2007), "He divn't gan tiv a college ti di that, man! A study of do (and to) in Tyneside English",Language Sciences,12 (2):360–371,doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2006.12.013
Rowe, Charley (2009),Salience and resilience in a set of Tyneside English shibboleths, Language Variation: European Perspectives II, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 191–204{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
Simmelbauer, Andrea (2000),The dialect of Northumberland: A lexical investigation, Anglistische Forschungen, Universitätsverlag C. Winter,ISBN978-3825309343
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