Geological engineering is a discipline of engineering concerned with the application of geological science and engineering principles to fields, such ascivil engineering,mining,environmental engineering, andforestry, among others.[1] The work of geological engineers often directs or supports the work of other engineering disciplines such as assessing the suitability of locations forcivil engineering,environmental engineering,mining operations, andoil and gas projects by conducting geological, geoenvironmental, geophysical, and geotechnical studies.[2] They are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments. The engineering design input and other recommendations made by geological engineers on these projects will often have a large impact onconstruction and operations. Geological engineers plan,design, and implement geotechnical, geological, geophysical, hydrogeological, and environmental data acquisition. This ranges from manual ground-based methods to deep drilling, togeochemical sampling, to advanced geophysical techniques and satellite surveying.[3] Geological engineers are also concerned with the analysis of past and future ground behaviour, mapping at all scales, and ground characterization programs for specific engineering requirements.[1] These analyses lead geological engineers to make recommendations and prepare reports which could have major effects on the foundations of construction, mining, andcivil engineering projects.[1] Some examples of projects include rock excavation, building foundation consolidation, pressure grouting, hydraulic channelerosion control, slope and fill stabilization,landslide risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, and assessment and remediation of contamination. In addition, geological engineers are included on design teams that develop solutions to surface hazards,groundwater remediation, underground and surface excavation projects, and resource management. Likemining engineers, geological engineers also conduct resource exploration campaigns, mine evaluation and feasibility assessments, and contribute to the ongoing efficiency, sustainability, and safety of active mining projects.[4]
While the term geological engineering was not coined until the 19th century,[5] principles of geological engineering are demonstrated through millennia of human history.
One of the oldest examples of geological engineering principles is theEuphrates tunnel, which was constructed around 2180 B.C. – 2160 B.C...[6] This, and other tunnels andqanats from around the same time were used by ancient civilizations such asBabylon andPersia for the purposes ofirrigation.[6] Another famous example where geological engineering principles were used in an ancient engineering project was the construction of theEupalinos aqueduct tunnel inAncient Greece.[7] This was the first tunnel to be constructed inward from both ends using principles ofgeometry andtrigonometry, marking a significant milestone for bothcivil engineering and geological engineering[7]
Although projects that applied geological engineering principles in their design and construction have been around for thousands of years, these were included within thecivil engineering discipline for most of this time. Courses in geological engineering have been offered since the early 1900s; however, these remained specialized offerings until a large increase in demand arose in the mid-20th century.[2] This demand was created by issues encountered from development of increasingly large and ambitious structures, human-generated waste, scarcity of mineral and energy resources, andanthropogenic climate change – all of which created the need for a more specialized field of engineering withprofessional engineers who were also experts ingeological orEarth sciences.
Notable disasters that are attributed to the formal creation of the geological engineering discipline include dam failures in theUnited States andwestern Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. These most famously include theSt Francis dam failure (1928),[8]Malpasset dam failure (1959),[9] and theVajont dam failure (1963),[10] where a lack of knowledge ofgeology resulted in almost 3,000 deaths between the latter two alone. TheMalpasset dam failure is regarded as the largestcivil engineering disaster of the 20th century in France andVajont dam failure is still the deadliestlandslide in European history.
Post-secondary degrees in geological engineering are offered at various universities around the world but are concentrated primarily inNorth America. Geological engineers often obtain degrees that include courses in bothgeological orEarth sciences andengineering. To practice as a professional geological engineer, abachelor's degree in a related discipline from an accredited institution is required.[2] For certain positions, aMaster’s orDoctorate degree in a relatedengineering discipline may be required.[2] After obtaining these degrees, an individual who wishes to practice as a professional geological engineer must go through the process of becoming licensed by a professional association or regulatory body in their jurisdiction.
In Canada, 8 universities are accredited byEngineers Canada to offer undergraduate degrees in geological engineering.[11] Many of these universities also offer graduate degree programs in geological engineering. These include:
In the United States there are 13 geological engineering programs recognized by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of theAccreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET).[12] These include:
Universities in other countries that hold accreditation to offer degree programs in geological engineering from the EAC by the ABET include:[12]
In geological engineering there are multiple subdisciplines which analyze different aspects ofEarth sciences and apply them to a variety ofengineering projects. The subdisciplines listed below are commonly taught at theundergraduate level, and each has overlap with disciplines external to geological engineering. However, a geological engineer who specializes in one of these subdisciplines throughout their education may still be licensed to work in any of the other subdisciplines.
Geoenvironmental engineering is the subdiscipline of geological engineering that focuses on preventing or mitigating the environmental effects ofanthropogeniccontaminants within soil and water.[13][14] It solves these issues via the development of processes and infrastructure for the supply ofclean water,waste disposal, and control ofpollution of all kinds.[15] The work of geoenvironmental engineers largely deals with investigating the migration, interaction, and result of contaminants; remediatingcontaminated sites; and protecting uncontaminated sites.[14] Typical work of a geoenvironmental engineer includes:
Mineral and energy resource exploration (commonly known as MinEx for short) is the subdiscipline of geological engineering that applies modern tools and concepts to the discovery and sustainable extraction of natural mineral and energy resources.[4] A geological engineer who specializes in this field may work on several stages of mineral exploration and mining projects, including exploration andorebody delineation, mine production operations,mineral processing, and environmental impact and risk assessment programs formine tailings and other mine waste.[17] Like a mining engineer, mineral and energy resource exploration engineers may also be responsible for the design, finance, and management of mine sites.
Geophysical engineering is the subdiscipline of geological engineering that applies geophysics principles to the design of engineering projects such as tunnels, dams, and mines or for the detection of subsurface geohazards, groundwater, and pollution. Geophysical investigations are undertaken from ground surface, in boreholes, or from space to analyze ground conditions, composition, and structure at all scales. Geophysical techniques apply a variety of physics principles such asseismicity,magnetism,gravity, andresistivity. This subdiscipline was created in the early 1990s as a result of an increased demand in more accurate subsurface information created by a rapidly increasing global population.[18] Geophysical engineering and applied geophysics differ from traditional geophysics primarily by their need for marginal returns and optimized designs and practices as opposed to satisfying regulatory requirements at a minimum cost[18]
Geological engineers are responsible for the planning, development, and coordination of site investigation and data acquisition programs for geological, geotechnical, geophysical, geoenvironmental, and hydrogeological studies.[4] These studies are traditionally conducted for civil engineering, mining, petroleum, waste management, and regional development projects but are becoming increasingly focused on environmental and coastal engineering projects and on more specialized projects for long-term underground nuclear waste storage.[3] Geological engineers are also responsible for analyzing and preparing recommendations and reports to improve construction of foundations for civil engineering projects such as rock and soil excavation,pressure grouting, and hydraulic channel erosion control. In addition, geological engineers analyze and prepare recommendations and reports on the settlement of buildings, stability of slopes and fills, and probable effects oflandslides andearthquakes to support construction and civil engineering projects.[3] They must design means to safely excavate and stabilize the surrounding rock or soil in underground excavations and surface construction, in addition to managing water flow from, and within these excavations.[4]
Geological engineers also perform a primary role in all forms of underground infrastructure includingtunnelling,mining,hydropower projects, shafts, deep repositories and caverns for power, storage, industrial activities, and recreation.[4] Moreover, geological engineers design monitoring systems, analyze natural and induced ground response, and prepare recommendations and reports on the settlement of buildings, stability of slopes and fills, and the probable effects of natural disasters to support construction and civil engineering projects.[4] In some jobs, geological engineers conduct theoretical and applied studies ofgroundwater flow andcontamination to develop site specific solutions which treat the contaminants and allow for safe construction.[4] Additionally, they design means to manage and protect surface and groundwater resources and remediation solutions in the event of contamination.[4] If working on a mine site, geological engineers may be tasked with planning, development, coordination, and conducting theoretical and experimental studies in mining exploration, mine evaluation and feasibility studies relative to the mining industry.[4] They conduct surveys and studies of ore deposits, ore reserve calculations, and contribute mineral resource expertise, geotechnical and geomechanical design and monitoring expertise and environmental management to a developing or ongoing mining operation.[4] In a variety of projects, they may be expected to design and perform geophysical investigations from surface usingboreholes or from space to analyze ground conditions, composition, and structure at all scales[4]
Professional Engineering Licenses may be issued through a municipal, provincial/state, or federal/national government organization, depending on the jurisdiction. The purpose of this licensing process is to ensure professional engineers possess the necessary technical knowledge, real-world experience, and basic understanding of the local legal system to practice engineering at a professional level. InCanada,the United States,Japan,South Korea,Bangladesh, andSouth Africa, the title of Professional Engineer is granted through licensure.[19] In theUnited Kingdom,Ireland,India, andZimbabwe the granted title is Chartered Engineer . InAustralia, the granted title is Chartered Professional Engineer.[19] Lastly, in theEuropean Union, the granted title is European Engineer. All these titles have similar requirements for accreditation, including a recognized post-secondary degree and relevant work experience.[19]
In Canada,Professional Engineer (P.Eng.) andProfessional Geoscientist (P.Geo.) licenses are regulated by provincial professional bodies which have the groundwork for their legislation laid out byEngineers Canada[20] andGeoscientists Canada.[21] The provincial organizations are listed in the table below.
| Province | Regulatory Body |
| Alberta | Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Alberta |
| British Columbia | Association of Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia |
| Manitoba | Engineers Geoscientists of Manitoba |
| New Brunswick | Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of New Brunswick |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Newfoundland and Labrador |
| Northwest Territories | Northwest Territories and Nunavut Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists |
| Nova Scotia | Association of Professional Engineers of Nova Scotia |
| Nunavut | Northwest Territories and Nunavut Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists |
| Ontario | Professional Engineers Ontario |
| Prince Edward Island | Association of Professional Engineers of Prince Edward Island |
| Quebec | Ordre des ingénieurs du Québec |
| Saskatchewan | Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Saskatchewan |
| Yukon | Engineers of Yukon |
In the United States, all individuals seeking to become a Professional Engineer (P.E.) must attain their license through the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of theAccreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET).[12] Licenses to be a Certified Professional Geologist in the United States are issued and regulated by the American Institute of Professional Geologists (AIPG)[21]
Professional societies in geological engineering are not-for-profit organizations that seek to advance and promote the represented profession(s) and connect professionals using networking, regular conferences, meetings, and other events, as well as provide platforms to publish technical literature through forms of conference proceedings, books, technical standards, and suggested methods, and provide opportunities for professional development such as short courses, workshops, and technical tours. Some regional, national, and international professional societies relevant to geological engineers are listed here:
Engineering geologists and geological engineers are both interested in the study of theEarth, its shifting movement, and alterations,[22][23] and the interactions of human society and infrastructure with, on, and inEarth materials. Both disciplines require licenses from professional bodies in most jurisdictions to conduct related work.[22][23] The primary difference between geological engineers and engineering geologists is that geological engineers are licensedprofessional engineers (and sometimes alsoprofessional geoscientists/geologists) with a combined understanding ofEarth sciences andengineering principles, whileengineering geologists are geological scientists whose work focusses on applications toengineering projects, and they may be licensedprofessional geoscientists/geologists, but notprofessional engineers. The following subsections provide more details on the differing responsibilities betweenengineering geologists and geological engineers.
Engineering geologists are applied geological scientists who assess problems that might arise before, during, and after anengineering project. They are trained to be aware of potential problems like:
They use a variety of field and laboratory testing techniques to characterize ground materials that might affect the construction, the long-term safety, orenvironmental footprint of a project. Job responsibilities of an engineering geologist include:
Geological engineers areengineers with extensive knowledge ofgeological orEarth sciences as well as engineering geology,engineering principles, andengineering design practices. These professionals are qualified to perform the role of or interact withengineering geologists. Their primary focus, however, is the use ofengineering geology data, as well as engineering skills to:
In all these activities, thegeological model,geological history, and environment, as well as measuredengineering properties of relevantEarth materials are critical toengineering design and decision making.[23]